शैक्षिक उद्देश्य और अनुदेशनात्मक उद्देश्य

 उद्देश्य का अर्थ

उद्देश्य ऐसा कथन या रूप हैं जो वांछित परिवर्तन की ओर संकेत करता है।

रॉबर्ट मेगर के अनुसार, ''एक उद्देश्य कुछ शब्दों का समूह है जो किसी कोर्स के वांछित परिणाम को व्यक्त करता है। यह ऐसी इच्छा है जो एक कथन द्वारा व्यक्त की जाती है और जिसमें शिक्षार्थी में प्रस्तावित परिवर्तन की व्याख्या की होती है। यह ऐसा कथन है जिसका प्रदर्शन शिक्षार्थी शिक्षक के अभिक्रमित प्रभाव के अन्त में करता है। यह वांछित अधिगम परिणाम का विशिष्टीकरण है अर्थात् यह अन्तिम व्यवहार है जो केवल मानवीय एवं दृष्टिगोचर गुणों को सूचित करता है।"

शैक्षिक लक्ष्य सामान्य कथन होते हैं। इनकी प्रकृति दार्शनिक होती है, अतः इसका स्वरूप अधिक व्यापक होता है। यह शिक्षण को दिशा प्रदान नहीं करते हैं। शिक्षण उद्देश्यों की प्रकृति मनोवैज्ञानिक होती है। शिक्षण की युक्तियों तथा व्यूह रचना के लिये इनका अधिक महत्व होता है।

डेबिट ए० गयने के अनुसार, "शैक्षिक उद्देश्यों से तात्पर्य छात्रों में होने वाले उन परिवर्तनों से हैं जो शैक्षिक क्रियाओं द्वारा नियोजित रूप से लाए जाते हैं। ये परिवर्तन समाज द्वारा निर्धारित प्रतिमानों के प्रतिबिम्ब हैं।"

 इस परिभाषा से स्पष्ट होता है कि उद्देश्य की तीन विशेषताएं होती हैं ―

1. निर्देशन 一 यह उस क्रिया को निर्देशन प्रदान करता है जिसका निर्माण अन्तिम उद्देश्य की प्राप्ति के लिये किया गया है।

2. नियोजित परिवर्तन 一 यह नियोजित परिवर्तन में सहायता प्रदान करता है।

3. क्रिया का आधार 一 यह संगठित क्रियाओं को आधार प्रदान करता है।

बी० एम० ब्लूम के मतानुसार, "शैक्षिक उद्देश्य केवल वे लक्ष्य या उद्देश्य ही नहीं है जिन्हें प्राप्त करने के लिए पाठ्यक्रम की रचना की जाती है और जिनकी ओर शिक्षण को निर्देशित की किया जाता है अपितु यह मूल्यांकन की तकनीकी के निर्माण एवं प्रयोग के लिए विस्तृत स्पष्टीकरण भी प्रदान करता है।"

शैक्षिक उद्देश्यों की यह परिभाषा अत्यन्त व्यापक है। ब्लूम के विचारानुसार शिक्षा एक विध्रुवीय प्रक्रिया है।

 ये तीन ध्रुव हैं 一 

(1) शैक्षिक उद्देश्य

(2) अधिगम अनुभव

(3) व्यवहार में परिवर्तन। 

अधिगम अनुभव शैक्षिक उद्देश्यों की प्राप्ति के लिये शिक्षण क्रियाओं द्वारा प्रदान किये जाते हैं और व्यवहार में परिवर्तन का मूल्यांकन शैक्षिक उद्देश्यों के अनुसार किया जाता है। अतः शैक्षिक उद्देश्य शिक्षण क्रियाओं तथा मूल्यांकन प्रविधियों का आधार है।

रार्बट मेगर के कथनानुसार, "एक अनुदेशनात्मक उद्देश्य ऐसी इच्छा है जो कथन द्वारा व्यक्त की जाती है और जिसमें शिक्षार्थी में प्रस्तावित परिवर्तन का उल्लेख होता है। उन्होंने आगे कहा है, 'अनुदेशनात्मक उद्देश्यों का कथन ऐसे शब्दों अथवा प्रतीकों का समूह जो आप की एक व्यक्त करता है कि आप जान सकें कि शिक्षार्थी क्या करेगा, कब अपनी उपलब्धि को प्रदर्शित करेगा और आप को कैसे मालूम होगा कि वह कब ऐसा कर रहा है।"

अनुदेशनात्मक उद्देश्य शिक्षार्थियों के व्यावहारिक परिवर्तन के रूप में प्राप्त होते हैं। वे वांछित अधिगम या शिक्षण के परिणाम या शिक्षार्थियों में व्यावहारिक उद्देश्य भी कहा जा सकता है। अनुदेशनात्मक उद्देश्य उन कौशलों, ज्ञान, योग्यताओं तथा दृष्टिकोणों की और संकेत करते हैं जिनकी प्राप्ति की विद्यार्थी से आशा की जाती है अर्थात् अध्यापक यार्थियों से आशा करता है कि अनुदेशन के परिणामस्वरूप वे इन्हें प्राप्त करेंगे। ये उद्देश्य सीमित, विशिष्ट, सुनिश्चित, स्पष्ट एवं क्रियात्मक होते हैं। ये कक्षीय शिक्षण से संबंधित होते है। ये बुनियादी उद्देश्य हैं, जिन्हें सीमित समय में आसानी से प्राप्त किया जा सकता हैं।

शैक्षिक उद्देश्य एवं अनुदेशनात्मक उद्देश्य में अन्तर

 Difference between Educational and Instructional Objectives

शैक्षिक उद्देश्य व्यापक होते हैं। ये शैक्षिक पद्धति तथा शिक्षा के व्यापक उद्देश्यों के साथ सबंधित होते हैं। शिक्षण अथवा अनुदेशनात्मक उद्देश्य संकुचित एवं विशिष्ट होते हैं और इनका सबंध कक्षीय शिक्षण के साथ होता है। शैक्षिक उद्देश्य प्राईमरी से विश्वविद्यालय तक शिक्षण को गठित करने से प्राप्त किये जाते हैं जबकि अनुदेशनात्मक उद्देश्य 30 से 45 मिनट की अवधि प्राप्त करने होते हैं।

अनुदेशनात्मक उद्देश्य {Instructional Objectives}

अनुदेशनात्मक उद्देश्य का अर्थ  [Meaning of Instructional Objectives]

रॉबर्ट मेगर के अनुसार, "एक अनुदेशनात्मक उद्देश्य ऐसी इच्छा है जो कथन द्वार व्यक्त की जाती है एवं जिसमें शिक्षार्थी में प्रोत्साहित अधिगम का उल्लेख होता है।" उन्होंने आगे कहा है, "अनुदेशनात्मक या शिक्षण उद्देश्यों का कथन ऐसे शब्दों अथवा प्रतीकों का समूह है, जो एक या अधिक शैक्षिक इच्छाओं को व्यक्त करता है। एक उद्देश्य उस सीमा तक आपके इच्छाएँ व्यक्त करता है कि आप जान सके कि शिक्षार्थी क्या करेगा, तब अपनी उपलब्धि प्रदर्शित करेगा एवं आपको कैसे मालूम होगा कि यह कब ऐसा कर रहा है।" 

अनुदेशनात्मक उद्देश्य अथवा शिक्षण उद्देश्य शिक्षार्थियों के व्यावहारिक परिवर्तन के में प्राप्त होते हैं। वे अपेक्षित अधिगम अथवा शिक्षण के प्रतिफल या शिक्षार्थियों में व्यावहारिक परिवर्तन के साथ संबंधित होते हैं। इन्हें शिक्षण अधिगम उद्देश्य या व्यावहारिक उद्देश्य भी कहा जाता है। अनुदेशनात्मक उद्देश्य ज्ञान, योग्यताओं, दृष्टिकोणों एवं उन कौशलों की तरफ इंगित करते हैं जिनकी प्राप्ति के लिए छात्रों से अपेक्षा की जाती है, अर्थात् शिक्षक छात्रों से यह आशा करता है कि अनुदेशन के फलस्वरूप वे इन्हें प्राप्त करेंगे। ये उद्देश्य स्पष्ट, विशिष्ट, सुनिश्चित सीमित तथा क्रियात्मक होते हैं। ये उद्देश्य कक्षा-कक्ष शिक्षण से संबंधित होते है।

अनुदेशनात्मक उद्देश्य वे बुनियादी उद्देश्य हैं, जिन्हें सीमित समय एवं सीमित साधनों के मध्यम आसानीपूर्वक प्राप्त किया जा सकता है।

अनुदेशनात्मक उद्देश्यों की आवश्यकता 

Need of Instructional Objectives

शिक्षण अथवा अनुदेशन द्वारा छात्रों के व्यक्तित्व का विकास करके उन्हें परिवर्तित किया जाता है, अतः शिक्षण के स्पष्ट उद्देश्य होने चाहिए। स्पष्ट एवं निश्चित उद्देश्य निम्नलिखित क्षेत्रों अपेक्षित परिवर्तन लाने में सहायक सिद्ध होते हैं ー

1. ज्ञान का क्षेत्र

2. प्रयोग का क्षेत्र

3. अभिरूचि का क्षेत्र

4. कौशल का क्षेत्र

5. दृष्टिकोण का क्षेत्र

6. व्यक्तित्व तथा चरित्र का क्षेत्र

7. मूल्यांकन का क्षेत्र

उपर्युक्त सभी क्षेत्र महत्वपूर्ण हैं। अतएव अनुदेशनात्मक उद्देश्य अथवा शिक्षण उद्देश्य इस तरह होने चाहिए जो छात्रों को इन क्षेत्रों के विकास में सहायता प्रदान करें। 

अधिगम उद्देश्यों अथवा सीखने के उद्देश्यों का संबंध विद्यार्थियों के व्यवहार परिवर्तन से होता है। कक्षा-शिक्षण के परिवर्तनों से शिक्षण उद्देश्यों की प्राप्ति की जाती है। यह विशिष्ट, प्रत्यक्ष एवं व्यावहारिक होते हैं। इसलिए एक अध्यापक के लिए इनकी अधिक उपयोगिता होती है। शिक्षण उद्देश्यों का प्रत्यक्ष रूप में संबंध सीखने के उद्देश्य से होता है। 

बी० एस० ब्लूम ने सीखने के उद्देश्यों को तीन पक्षों में विभाजित किया है। सीखने के उद्देश्यों का संबंध विद्यार्थियों के व्यवहार परिवर्तन से होता है। व्यवहार परिवर्तन तीन प्रकार के होते हैं –

(1) ज्ञानात्मक, (2) भावात्मक, (3) क्रियात्मक।

ब्लूम के अनुसार सीखने के उद्देश्य भी तीन प्रकार के होते हैं –

(1) ज्ञानात्मक उद्देश्य

(2) भावात्मक उद्देश्य

(3) क्रियात्मक उद्देश्य 

(1) ज्ञानात्मक उद्देश्य-ज्ञानात्मक उद्देश्यों का संबंध तथ्यों, ज्ञान तथा सूचनाओं की जानकारी से होता है। अधिकतर शैक्षिक क्रियाओं द्वारा इसी उद्देश्य की प्राप्ति की जाती है। 

(2) भावात्मक उद्देश्य-इसका संबंध रुचियों, अभिवृत्तियों एवं मूल्यों के विकास होता है। यह शिक्षा का महत्वपूर्ण उद्देश्य माना जाता है।

(3) क्रियात्मक उद्देश्य-क्रियात्मक उद्देश्यों का संबंध शारीरिक क्रियाओं के प्रशिक्षण तथा कौशल के विकास से होता है। उद्देश्य का संबंध औद्योगिक एवं व्यावसायिक प्रशिक्षण से होता है। 

ब्लूम तथा उनके सहयोगियों ने शिकागो विश्वविद्यालय में इन तीनों पक्षों का वर्गीकरण प्रस्तुत किया है। ज्ञानात्मक पक्ष का ब्लूम ने 1956 में, भावात्मक पक्ष का ब्लूम, करथवाल एवं मसीआ ने 19964 में एवं क्रियात्मक पक्ष का सिम्पसन ने 1909 में वर्गीकरण प्रस्तुत किया है इस रस को सहायता से अध्यापक अपने शिक्षण एवं अधिगम उद्देश्यों  का निरधारण सरलता एवं सुगमता से कर सकता है।

पाठ्यक्रम {Curriculum}

प्रस्तावना {Introduction}

शिक्षा जीवन चलने वाली प्रक्रिया है जिसके द्वारा व्यक्ति के व्यवहार में निरन्तर परिवर्तन व परिमार्जन होता है। यह मानव को के शिखर पर पहुंचाने वाली वह सीढ़ी है जिसके माध्यम से व्याक्ती अपने मनचाहे क्षेत्र में सफलता प्राप्त कर सकता है। इस सफलता प्राप्ति में मुख्य रूप से शिक्षा के औपचारिक माध्यमों का योगदान होता है। औपचारिक साधनों के अन्तर्गत वे माध्यम आते है जिनका नियोजन सुनिश्चित उद्देश्यों की पूर्ति के लिए व्यवस्थित ढंग से संस्थापित संस्था में किया जाता है जिन्हें विघालय कहा जाता है। किन्तु व्यक्ति के व्यवहार में परिवर्तन की यह प्रक्रिय विघालय तथा विघालयी जीवन में ही पूर्ण नहीं हो जाती है बल्कि यह विद्यालय से बाहर भी तथा पर चलती रहती है। अतः व्यक्ति के व्यवहार में परिवर्तन लाने वाली ये परिस्थितियाँ जो सुनियोजित ढंग से व्यवस्थित न होने पर भी उसे शिक्षा प्रदान करती है, औपचारिक माध्यम के अन्तर्गत आती हैं। इस प्रकार इन दोनों ही माध्यमों से प्राप्त शिक्षा द्वारा बालक के बहुमुखी विकास का सृजन होता है।

 वर्तमान शिक्षा व्यवस्था निम्न प्रकार है ─

शिक्षक + शिक्षार्थी + पाठ्यक्रम = शिक्षा व्यवस्था

शिक्षण क्रियाओं का आधार पाठ्‌यवस्तु या विषय-वस्तु होती है। विषय-वस्तु के सामान्य प्रारूप को पाठ्यक्रम (Curriculum) कहते है। शिक्षा की प्रक्रिया की धुरी पाठ्यक्रम है।

पाठ्यक्रम की अवधारणा/अर्थ व परिभाषा

 (CONCEPT/MEANING AND DEFINITION OF CURRICULUM)

पाठ्यक्रम को अंग्रेजी भाषा में 'Curriculum' कहते है, जिसकी उत्पत्ति लैटिन भाषा के 'Curricere/Currere' अथवा 'कुर्रेर' से हुई है जिसका शाब्दिक अर्थ है 'दौड़ का मैदान' (A Race Course) सीधे शब्दों में कहा जाये तो पाठ्यक्रम वह क्रम है जिसे व्यक्ति को अपने गन्तव्य स्थान पर पहुंचने के लिए पार करना होत है अर्थात् यह दौड़ के मैदान की तरह होता है जिसमें बालक को तब तक दौड़ना पड़ता है जब तक कि वह अपने लक्ष्य को न प्राप्त कर ले। विद्यालयों में शिक्षक और शिक्षार्थी द्वारा किए गए प्रयासों से किसी उद्देश्य की प्राप्ति होना ही पाठ्यक्रम कहलाता है। अतः पाठ्यक्रम वह साधन है जिसके द्वारा शिक्षा व जीवन के लक्ष्यों की प्राप्ति होती है। यह अध्ययन का निश्चित व तर्कपूर्ण क्रम है। जिसके माध्यम से शिक्षार्थी के व्यक्तित्व का विकास होता है तथा वह नवीन ज्ञान तथा अनुभव ग्राहण करता है।

शिक्षा के अर्थ के बारे में दो धारणाएं है-पहला प्रचलित अर्थ या संकुचित अर्थ व दूसरा वास्तविक या व्यापक अर्थ संकुचित अर्थ में शिक्षा केवल स्कूली शिक्षा या पुस्तकीय ज्ञान तक ही सीमित होती है तथा इस दृष्टि से पाठ्यक्रम को केवल विभिन्न विषयों के पुस्तकीय ज्ञान तक ही सीमित माना जाता है परन्तु विस्तृत अर्थ में पाठ्यक्रम के अन्तर्गत वे सभी अनुभव आ जाते हैं जिसे एक नई पीढ़ी अपनी पुरानी पीढ़ियों से प्राप्त करती है। साथ ही विद्यालय में रहते हुए शिक्षक के संरक्षण में विद्यार्थी जो भी सक्रियाएँ करता है वह सभी पाठ्यक्रम के अन्तर्गत आती है तथा इसके अतिरिक्त विभिन्न पाठ्यक्रम सहभागी क्रियाएँ भी पाठ्यक्रम का अंग होती है। अतः वर्तमान समय में पाठ्यक्रम से तात्पर्य उनके विस्तृत रूप से है।

पाठ्यक्रम को विभिन्न विद्वानों द्वारा निम्न प्रकार से परिभाषित किया गया है 一

पॉल हिरस्ट के अनुसार, 'पाठ्यक्रम ऐसी गतिविधियों का समायोजन है जिनके द्वारा छात्र जहाँ तक सम्भव हो, निश्चित परिणाम व उद्देश्यों को प्राप्त करते हैं।"

According to Paul Hirst, "A programme of activities designed so that pupil will attian as far as possible certain educational ends or objectives." 

कनिंघम के अनुसार, "पाठ्यक्रम कलाकार (शिक्षक) के हाथ में एक साधन है जिससे वह अपनी सामग्री (शिक्षार्थी) को अपने आदर्श, उद्देश्य के अनुसार अपनी चित्रशाला (विद्यालय में डाल सकता है।" 

According to Cunningham, "The curriculum is a tool in the hands of the artists (teacher) to mould this material (the pupil) according to his ideas (objectives) in his studio (the school)."

मुनरो के अनुसार, "पाठ्यक्रम सारे अनुभवों को अपने में सम्मिलित करता है जिसका प्रयोग विद्यालय द्वारा बालक को शिक्षित करने के उद्देश्य से होता है।"

According to Munro, "Curriculum includes all the experiences which are utilized by the school to attain the aim of education."

माध्यमिक शिक्षा आयोग (1952-53), "पाठ्यक्रम का अर्थ केवल उन सैद्धान्तिक विषयों से नहीं है जो विद्यालयों में परम्परागत रूप से पढ़ाए जाते हैं बल्कि इसमें अनुभवों की वह सम्पूर्णता भी सम्मिलित होती है जिनको विद्यार्थी विद्यालय कक्षा पुस्तकालय प्रयोगशाला कार्यशाला, खेल के मैदान तथा शिक्षक एवं छात्रों के अनेक अनौपचारिक सम्पकों से प्राप्त करता है। इस प्रकार विद्यालय का सम्पूर्ण जीवन पाठ्यक्रम हो जाता है जो छात्रों के जीवन के सभी पक्षों को प्रभावित करता है और उनके सन्तुलित व्यक्तित्व के विकास में सहायता देता है।"

होर्नी के शब्दों में, "पाठ्यक्रम वह है जो शिक्षार्थी को पढ़ाया जाता है। वह शान्तिपूर्ण पढ़ने या चौखने से अधिक है। इसमें उद्योग, व्यवसाय, ज्ञानोपार्जन अभ्यास और क्रियाएँ शामिल है।"

According to Horne, "The curriculum is that which the pupil is taught. It involves re than the acts of learning and quiet study. It involves occupations, productions, achievements exercise and activity."

फ्रॉबेल के अनुसार, "पाठ्यक्रम सम्पूर्ण मानव जाति के ज्ञान एवं अनुभव का प्रतिरूप होना चाहिए|"

According to Froebel, "Curriculum should be conceived as an epitome of the ended whole of the knowledge and experience of the human race."

पाठ्यक्रम की प्रकृति

Nature of Curriculum

शिक्षा जीवनपर्यन्त चलने वाली प्रक्रिया है, जिसके द्वारा व्यक्ति के व्यवहार में निरन्तर परिवर्तन एवं परिमार्जन होता है। व्यक्ति के व्यवहार में यह परिवर्तन अनेक माध्यमों से होते हैं, किन्तु मुख्य रूप से इन माध्यमों को दो रूपों में वर्गीकृत किया जा सकता है औपचारिक एवं अनौपचारिक । औपचारिक रूप के अन्तर्गत वे माध्यम आते है जिनका नियोजन कुछ निश्चित उद्देश्यों की पूर्ति के जो लिए व्यवस्थित ढंग से संस्थापित संस्थाओं में किया जाता है। इस प्रकार की संस्थाओं को विद्यालय कहा जाता है, किन्तु व्यक्ति के परिवर्तन की प्रक्रिया विद्यालय एवं विद्यालयी जीवन में ही पूर्ण नहीं हो माती है बल्कि वह विद्यालय से बाहर तथा जीवन भर चलती रहती है। अतः व्यक्ति के व्यवहार में होने वाले अनेक परिवर्तन विद्यालय की सीमा से बाहर की परिस्थितियों के परिणामस्वरूप होते हैं। चूंकि ऐसी परिस्थितियाँ सुनियोजित ढंग से प्रस्तुत नहीं की जाती है, अतः वे अनौपचारिक माध्यम के अन्तर्गत आती है। विद्यालय में विद्यार्थियों को जो कुछ भी कक्षा एवं कक्षा के बाहर प्रदान किया जाता है उसका एक निश्चित उद्देश्य होता है एवं उसे किसी विशेष माध्यम से ही पूरा किया जाता है। हमारी से कुछ सकल्पनायें होती है कि एक विशेष कक्षा उत्तीर्ण करने के बाद विद्यार्थी के व्यवहार में अमुक परिवर्तन आ जायेगा, परन्तु यह परिवर्तन किस प्रकार लाया जायेगा ? किसके द्वारा लाया जायेगा ? और कितना लाया जायेगा ? आदि ऐसे अनेक प्रश्न है, जिनका समाधान पाठ्यक्रम जैसे साधन से प्राप्त होता है। अतः पाठ्यक्रम का सम्बन्ध शिक्षा के औपचारिक माध्यम से है।

पाठ्यक्रम की आवश्यकता एवं महत्व

Need and Importance of Curriculum

पाठ्यक्रम की आवश्यकता एवं महत्व निम्नलिखित हैं ─

1. शैक्षिक लक्ष्यों व उद्देश्यों की प्राप्ति में सहायक ─ पाठ्यक्रम से विद्यार्थी और अध्यापक द्वारा निर्धारित लक्ष्यों एवं उद्देश्यों की प्राप्ति संभव होती है। पाठ्यक्रम के अभाव में शैक्षिक प्रक्रिया प्रभावी और सार्थक नहीं हो सकती।

2. ज्ञान वृद्धि में सहायक ─ पाठ्यक्रम की आवश्यकता और महत्व इस बात से भी है जि यह अध्यापक और छात्रों के ज्ञान में वृद्धि करता है। पाठ्यक्रम के अध्ययन से ही अध्यापक और विद्यार्थी को समय-समय पर घटित होने वाली नवीन घटनाओं और तथ्यों की जानकारी मिलती है।

3. कुशल अध्यापकों के चयन में सहायक ─ पाठ्यक्रम न केवल किसी कक्षा विशेष या विषयवस्तु से संबंधित जानकारी देता है बल्कि यह भी बताता है कि किसी विषय वस्तु को पढ़ाने में किस प्रकार का अध्यापक चाहिए और उसका चयन कैसे किया जाए।

4. प्रभावी शिक्षण विधियों के चयन में सहायक ─ विद्यार्थियों की रुचि और उनके मानसिक स्तर के अनुरूप चयनित शिक्षण विधियों से शैक्षिक लक्ष्यों और उद्देश्यों की प्राप्ति का रास्ता सहज हो जाता है। पाठ्यक्रम की सहायता से ही इस प्रकार की शिक्षण विधियों के चुनाव में सहायता मिलती है।

5. प्रजातांत्रिक मूल्यों के विकास में सहायक ─ पाठ्यक्रम के माध्यम से विद्यार्थियों को | विभिन्न प्रकार की जानकारियों दी जाती हैं। इन्हीं जानकारियों के सहारे विद्यार्थियों के भावी जीवन की सफलता निर्भर है। विद्यालय में रहते हुए विद्यार्थी परस्पर समूह में रहते हैं, जिससे उनमें आपसी प्रेम-भाव सहयोग, समानता, स्वतंत्रता और न्याय आदि गुणों का विकास होता हैं।

6. शिक्षण अधिगम प्रक्रिया में निरन्तरता ─ प्रभावी शिक्षण अधिगम प्रक्रिया की मुख्य विशेषता यही होती है कि उसमें निरन्तरता हो । पाठ्यक्रम समय-समय पर विभिन्न प्रकार की शिक्षण तकनीकों की जानकारी देता है, जिसमें शिक्षण अधिगम प्रक्रिया सुचारू और सार्थक बनती हैं।

7. सीमाओं के निर्धारण में सहायक ─ पाठ्यक्रम का कार्य अध्यापक और विद्यार्थियों में न केवल ज्ञान का विकास करना है बल्कि उनमें शैक्षिक कार्यों व उनको सीमाओं का निर्धारण करना भी है। पाठयक्रम अध्यापको को उनके कार्य क्षेत्र की जानकारी प्रदान करता है तथा विद्यार्थियों को भी उनके बोध स्तर एवं शैक्षिक सीमाओं का आभास करवाता है।

8. विभिन्न कौशल और अभिवृत्तियों के विकास में सहायक ─ पाठ्यक्रम से अध्यापक और विद्यार्थियों में विभिन्न शैक्षिक और व्यावसायिक कौशलों का विकास होता है। इससे उन्हें ज्ञान की उपयोगिता और चिन्तन प्रवृत्ति का भी बोध होता है।

9. अनुदेशन नियोजन की सुविधा ─ पाठ्यक्रम अध्यापको को अनुदेशन को नियोजित करने में भी सहायता करता है। अध्यापक को सामाजिक शक्तियों के साथ-साथ मानवीय विशेषताओं की जानकारी भी आवश्यक है। इसी ज्ञान के आधार पर अध्यापक अनुदेशनात्मक विधियों का चयन करके अपना शिक्षण कार्य पूरा कर पाता है।

10. पाठ्य पुस्तकों का निर्माण ─ अच्छी पाठ्य पुस्तकों का निर्माण एक कठिन कार्य है, इस कार्य में पाठ्यक्रम हमारी सहायता करता है। पाठ्यक्रम हमें यह बताता है कि किस स्तर पर किस विषय में क्या विषय सामग्री होनी चाहिए। इसी के आधार पर लेखक अच्छी पाठ्यपुस्तकों का निर्माण कर पाते हैं।

11. शिक्षण अधिगम परिस्थितियों को संगठित करने में सहायक ─ पाठ्यक्रम अध्यापक के साथ-साथ छात्रों को भी विभिन्न अधिगम की शैलियों की जानकारी भी प्रदान करता है, इन्हीं पौलियों के आधार पर शिक्षण कार्य सम्पन्न किया जाता है।

12. विभिन्न खोजों व आविष्कारों में सहायक ─ पाठयक्रम उच्च शिक्षा स्तर पर छात्रों और अध्यापको को विभिन्न प्रकार की खोजों और आविष्कारों के लिए प्रेरित करता है। ये खोजें और आविष्कार किसी भी राष्ट्र के विकास में अपना अहम् योगदान देते है।

13. सहज मूल्यांकन में सहायक ─ किसी भी विद्यार्थी के शैक्षिक स्तर का बोध समय-समय पर किए जाने वाले मूल्यांकन से ही होता है। पाठ्यक्रम से ही किसी भी कक्षा स्तर के विद्यार्थियों को उचित शैक्षिक स्थिति का बोध होता है, जो विद्यार्थी के उचित मार्गदर्शन में सहायक होती है।

14. तत्कालीन घटनाओं के ज्ञान में सहायक ─ पाठ्यक्रम का महत्व इस बात से भी हैं कि छात्रों को देश-विदेश की तत्कालीन घटनाओं की जानकारी भी प्रदान करता है जिससे छात्र अपने सामाजिक व भौतिक वातावरण को समझ पाते हैं।

15. पाठ्यक्रम और राष्ट्रीय एकता ─ पाठ्यक्रम राष्ट्रीय एकता को बनाये रखने में हमारी सहायता करता है। पाठ्यक्रम के माध्यम से विभिन्न क्रियाओं का संचालन करके समाज में राष्ट्रीय एकता बनाई जा सकती है। 

Intelligence

Intelligence

Introduction

Psychologists agreed that they do not know what intelligence is? They can only observe how it work in terms of behaviours. The assumption is that behaviour reflects intelligence. The present basis of study has yielded such important and usable information about man's behaviour as to be extremely helpful to teachers. Intelligence is nothing but intelligent behaviour. Intelligence is nothing but intelligent behaviours.

"An intelligent behaviour is that which is above the norms of a particular group." It is above the average behaviour. 

A child of two years old behaves above his age group children, he is known as intelligent boy. The intelligence is an inferred phenomenon from behaviour. This meaning of intelligence should be accepted and preserved at least until we have a better construct or more definite knowledge.

Definition/Meaning of Intelligence

The term intelligence means 'Intellect' and 'under standing'. Generally speaking. 'alertness' with regards to the actual situation of life is an index of intelligence. From the layman point of view intelligence means common sense or application part of knowledge. Intelligence is generally guessed from the way a person appears to understand a fact or a group of facts, and the manner in which he/she responds to those facts. But in ancient India our great rishis called it viveka or 'Vivekatmaka Budhl'.

As far as possible the definitions of intelligence is grouped under the following categories. These are as follows:

1. Intelligence Means Ability to Adjust

The following psychologists are strong supporters of this category of definition.

(a) Stern: Intelligence is the general capacity of an individual consciously to adjust his thinking to new requirements. It is the general mental adaptability to new problems and conditions of life or the ability to adjust oneself to a new situation.

(b) Ross: Intelligence means conscious adaptation to new situation.

(c) Burt: Intelligence is the capacity of flexible adjustment.

(d)Colvin: Intelligence as ability to adjust to environment.

II. Intelligence Means Ability to Learn

The second group of psychologists emphasise on ability to learn. The following are the psychologists who support the above definitions:

(a) Woodworth has defined Intelligence 'as intellect put to use'. It is the use of intellectual abilities for handling a situation or accomplishing any task. It is the capacity to acquire capacity or it is an indicator of the ability to cope successfully with novel situations.

(b) Thorndike has defined Intelligence as the power of making good responses from the point of view of truth and fact or it may be defined as the ability to make profitable use of past experiences or Intelligence is the ability of learning. 

Intelligence Means Ability to Carry on Abstract Thinking

The following are the psychologists who strongly advocated the meaning of intelligence as follows:

(a) Terman: He defined Intelligence as the ability to carry on abstract thinking or the ability to think abstractly. 

(b) Binet: Intelligence is a capacity to think well, to judge well and to be self-critical. 

Comprehensive and Modern Definition of Intelligence

In view of the lacunae in the various definitions, the following psychologists have suggested the comprehensive and global ideas on intelligence,

(a) David Wechsler defined Intelligence as the aggregate or global capacity of an individual to act purposefully. to think rationally and to deal effectively with his environment. In his definition he has given emphasis on three aspects, i.e., purposeful activities, rational thinking and effective dealings of an individual to consider intelligence.

(b) Stoddard defined Intelligence is the ability to undertake activities that are characterized by difficulty, complexity, abstractness, economy, adaptiveness to a goal, social value, emergence of originals and to maintain such activities under the condition that demand a concentration of energy, and a resistance to emotional forces. If we analyse the attributes of intelligence given by Stoddard the nature of intelligence will be very clear.

Characteristics of Intelligence 

On the basis of above definitions, the following characteristics can be enumerated.

1. It is an ability of abstract thinking

2. It is a capacity to adjust in new situation. 

3. It is a general mental adaptability

4. It is an ability to relate diverse situations. 

5. It is the capacity to acquire capacities and originds.

6. It is the innate disposition and flexibility of mind. 

7. It is a concentration of energy and global capacity.

8. It is a resistance to emotional forces.

9. It is a power of self-criticism or auto-criticism. 

10. It is an inborn capacity to perceive the right thing at the right place and maintain definite direction. 

11. It is an ability to reduce relationship.

12. It is an ability to learn from experience. 

13. It is an ability to carry on higher process of thoughts.

14. It is an ability of verbal and numbers reasoning. 

15. It involves inductive and deductive reasoning or thinking.

Types of Intelligence

Basically the term intelligence has been classified into three groups. They are as follows:

(a) The Abstract Intelligence

Abstract intelligence refers to the ability to understand and deal with symbols-words, numbers, formulas and diagrams. It means the capacity to solve problems presented in the above form. This type of intelligence can be predicted by testing level of aspiration, capacity to do various types of work and his special interest and speed of work. Generally the lawyers, physicians, literary men, students, statesmen, businessmen and professionals possess abstract intelligence on high degree.

(b) The Concrete/Mechanical/Motor Intelligence

This intelligence refers to the ability to deal readily and effectively with Machines and Mechanical contrivances or the ability of an individual to concrete situations and to react to them adequately. The motor intelligence is more related to physical education, i.e., the activities of games and sports. Thus the person who is engaged in the work of engineering, highly trained persons of mechanic and industry belong to this group of intellectuals.

(c) The Social Intelligence

The person who is able to deal effectively with the people and maintain good social situations possess more social intelligence. These people make friendship easily and understand human relations. The people like salesman, diplomat and politician, etc., belong to this category.

Though there is no specific demarcation of distributing intelligence yet it can be said that some may be more in abstract and others may be mechanical and social intelligence. If a person is very good in abstract intelligence may not be equally fruitful in mechanical work but may be better than average and vice versa.

Creativity { Part 2 }

Creativity

 Steps or Stages of Creative Thinking Process

Unlike many psychometrists and educators, those who theorize about the thoughts and emotions involved in creativity are generally not bound by the creativity-equals-divergent thinking assumption. Instead, they look at broader aspects of human functioning Wallas (1926) described the process as consisting of four stages, i.e., preparation, incubation. Inspiration or illumination and verification or revision.

(a) Preparation

It is the first step in which a problem is investigated in every possible way, It means the conscious work on the problem is initiated and continued till the problem solver familiar with the various features of the problem. Here the problem is analysed and the stage or plan of action is set for its solution. The facts and materials relevant to the problems are collected or gathered for solving the problem in hand. But sometime it so happens that without solving the problem the thinkers keep aside the problem for the time being and do some other activities.

(b) Incubation

In the second stage no conscious thought is given to the problem but the ideas and materials collected in the period of preparation are somehow stored below the conscious level of the psyche. This is the stage of no work or rest period. But somehow the mind continues to search or experience clue to the solution of the problem.

(c) Illumination

During this stage the 'Aha' feeling is suddenly experienced, often unexpectedly This means a sudden appearance of the solution of his problem comes to the mind.

(d) Verification

The final stage is verification. When the new idea is evaluated on the basis of its creator's own standards which may be sharply different from the public and criticism starts. Here the idea which appeared through insight may be considered as the correct answer. In case it does not work out. fresh attempts are made to solve the problem.

Dimensions of Creativity

⇒ According to Guilford there are four creative thinking abilities: fluency, flexibility, originality and elaboration. The intellectual operation for these abilities is divergent, and it can apply all content areas Generally creativity test (verbal or non-verbal) measure all the above dimensions of creativity. Let us now try to illustrate the above dimensions one by one:

(i) Fluency

Researches in the field of creativity have revealed that highly creative persons are thought to be more fluent in their thinking and able to generate alternative ideas in great variety and large quantity. Examples of this competency include writing large number of acceptable plot titles for untitled literary works and imagining many consequences of a change in the environment or in the conditions of life (e.g.. suppose the world's supply of oil would dry up: list as many consequences as you can imagine). This is called ideational fluency because it denotes skills in generating quantities of ideas in a language context. But associational fluency is the ability to produce many relationship or meaningful associations with a given idea. It is evident by the quantity of synonyms a person can attach to any familiar word that has many meanings or it characterises thinking by analogy. Similarly, expressional fluency refers to skills in Juxtaposing words to meet sentence structure requirements. It is the production of alternative organised thoughts. A sequence of words in a sentence represents a thought system.

(ii) Flexibility

The skill of being to able discontinue an existing pattern of thought and shift to new patterns or shifts from one set of assumption or approach to another is called flexibility. Spontaneous flexibility deals with changes in direction of thinking when a person is not instructed to do so. For example, in listing the various uses of a brick, the flexible individual tends to produce ideas relating not only to the weight of the object but also to its size, colour, shape, texture and so on. Adaptive flexibility deals with changes in direction of thinking to solve problems. In this case content is figural, such as geometric forms which the persons use to make as many objects as possible.

(c) Originality

The process of originality is on products that are unexpected and sometimes amusing. It is found out that divergent production is the generation of logical alternatives to fit the needs of given information and that logical alternatives depend upon the original ideas of the person concerned. Thus creativity is the process of originality, uniqueness and even sometimes idiosyncratic ways of doing things or showing problems.

(d) Elaboration

Elaboration is seen in facility in giving details to round out a complex innovation, such as an organised plan or how much skilled in planning and organization. For example, a person demonstrates the ability to fill in all of the various details necessary to make a briefly outlined project depends upon the elaboration.

Identification of Creative Individuals

Creativity of an individual can be seen in the interaction of his intellect personality, motivation and the biography although its distribution is neither equal or universal. Researches in this regard have proved that creative potential are unique and divergent in nature rather than associating with welligence. The identification of creative potential depends upon the following measures :

(i) By observation of behaviour,

(ii) Through rating scale and attitude scales,

(iii) By the help of interview/asking questions informally, 

(iv) By the help of situational tests. interest inventories. aptitude test projective techniques and personality test, etc. 

(v) By studying the cummulative record, if maintained about the individual, and 

(vi) By the help of standardized tests along with creativity tests.

Factors Affecting/Hindering/Obstructing or Impediments to the Promotion of Creativity

There are different factors which obstruct or block creativity development. These are the following:

(a) Partiality or Negative Treatment of Parents

It is found out that there is a difference in treatment from the parents with regard to facilities to boys and girls at home. The boys are provided with more opportunities, encouragement and positive attitude rather than girls, hence, creative development is suppressed and not nurtured from the very beginning. 

(b) Unfavourable Home Conditions and Unfavourable Attitudes Towards Children

It is a fact that home is the child's first environment and a can help the child to do and undo everything when he/she is capable of doing the things. But broken home, discouragement. authoritarian discipline and not providing proper play equipments at the time of childhood and obstructive social anitudes and lack of rewards discourage creativity among children.

(c) Lack of Stimulation and Unfavourable Environment

Even though the foundations for creativity are made from the very beginning of the early childhood stage yet its development must be stimulated in the later stage. But it is noticed that due to lack of stimulation and congenial environment, the development of mental flexibility or divergent thinking is stopped. Thus, unfavourable environmental conditions have been found to influence the work of the creative person and offers less stimulation to foster creativity than the congenial atmosphere either at home or school.

(d) Socio-economic Status and Family Size

Socio-economic condition of the family is responsible for affecting creativity among the children. The children of lower income group experience authoritarian and lack of opportunities to express their individuality and to foster creativity. Similarly in large families it is found out that children's needs are not properly gratified due to less favourable conditions at home which hamper the development of creativity.

(e) Inability to Detect Creativity in Time

Generally there are different procedures to identify creativity But sometimes it is not noticed early and too late for stimulation for full development of these potentials. Hence, creative potential is affected and not nurtured property.

(f) Unfavourable School Conditions

Next to home the child spends at least eight hours a day in school. If the school conditions are unfavourable, the stimulation to promote creativity provided by a favourable home environment is a waste. Sometimes it is marked that authoritarian teaching-learning, too much memorisation too much dependence on text-book and curricula defective system of examination, overcrowded class, lack of co-curricular activities, lack of initiative of the teacher in the school, strict discipline and discouragement of anything that does not face within the prescribed pattern are responsible for hindering the path of creativity.

(g) Unwilling to Take Risk and Lack of Foresightedness 

It is revealed that most of the children in schools are not ready to take risk and to do new work either due to fear or not having the foresightedness. This situation might have occurred either due to family background or because of school conditions although every student has some form of creativity or the other. Thus unsatisfactory conditions at home and school obstruct the promotion of creativity among our pupils.

Creativity

Introduction

We encounter with increasingly complex problems in today's world. Success in the complex world depend on our ability to solve these problems. New discovery and development is possible only due to creative thinking. Thus, whatever good and beautiful that has survived through the passage of time in human civilization and culture, is designed and determined by the creative thinkers. Creativity, thus, the highest order of human potentiality of a country that contributes optimum growth and development, progress and prosperity, and nurtures the greatness and glory of a nation's destiny. The creative persons are really the assets of the nation and the greater the creative potential that a nation holds, the better it is exploited for the cause of the nation. Therefore, in the educational process we should develop the creative abilities among children.

Meaning/Defining Creativity

Creativity has many meanings, probably because it arouses interest among a wide variety of scholars-including philosophers, historians, educators, psychiatrists and psychologists who view it from their separate perspectives. Some think of creativity as personal idiosyncrasy while others associate it with special competency. Thus, creativity is that which appears new to every moment or it is the responses that are novel to the society as well as to the individual. 

Drevdahl (1956) defined creativity as "the capacity of a person to produce compositions, products or ideas of any sort which are essentially new or novel and previously unknown to the producer".

Skinner defined the creative thinker is one who explores new ideas and makes new observation, new predictions and new inferences. Thus, creativity is the capacity or ability of an individual to create, discover or produce a new idea or object including the re-arrangement or reshaping of what is already known to him.

Koble (1958) defined as "creativity implies invention the uncovering of new facts or new relationships among new or old data.

Guilford (1960) said that "creativity refers to abilities that are most characteristics of creative people. Thus creativity refers to the abilities of individuals to create or produce results of creative nature.

Torrance (1962) defined creativity is the process of becoming sensitive to problems, deficiencies, gaps in knowledge, missing elements, dishermonies, and so forth".

McKinnon (1963) defined "creativity is a process extended in time and characterized by originality adaptiveness and realization".

Ausubel (1963) defined "creativity is a generalized constellation of intellectual abilities, personality variables and problem solving traits".

Thurstone defined creativity is an act of the thinker which comes suddenly to him and implies some novelty to him.

Tylor (1964) defined a process is creative when it results in a novel work that is accepted as tenable useful or satisfying by a group at a point in time.

Stein (1974) defined creativity is a process which results in novel work that is accepted as tenable or useful or satisfying to a group of people at some point in time.

Willach and Kogan (1965) defined creativity lies producing more associations and in producing more that are unique.

Thus for creativity there is no correct response it is new or original and unique. It is the capacity or ability of an individual to create, discover or produce a new idea or object including the rearrangement or reshaping of what is already known to him.

Baker (1962) defined creativity as bringing about notable changes in things, thoughts and social structure through action thinking which results in a situation not previously known to us.

Vernon (1967) considers creativity mainly as "on ability and a form of cognitive activity. According to him, creativity means the abilities and personality characterstics that underline the production of artistic or scientific work which is generally recognised as creative and original.

The creative person is a divergent thinker. He discovers or offers uncommon thoughts or ideas, unexpected suggestions and unconventional views. Andrews (1961) defines a creative person has a positive self-integrating force, a process of self actualization and expression of being. Creativity in terms of product refers to the capacity of individual by which something new is produced, ie an idea or an object including a new form or arrangement of old elements. Creativity in terms of process refers to the act of mind, that calls into play, motivation. perception. learning and thinking. According to Rogers "the creative process is the emergence in action of a novel relational product growing out of the uniqueness of the individual on the one-hand and materials, events, people or circumstances of his life on the other". A creative environment is that which motivates a person to produce new ideas, patterns or relationships. Rogers also mentioned four environmental conditions that may foster creativity. Le., accepting the individual as of unconditional worth. providing climate free from external evaluation, understanding the child empathically and providing psychological freedom.

Nature of Creativity

The following are the nature of creativity :

(a) Creativity is universal : Creativity is not confined to any individual groups of individuals, caste, colour sex or creed. It has no boundary of age. location or culture. It is applicable to all stages of education and universal in nature. 

(b) Creativity abilities are natural : It is not surrounded and developed With artificial and forceful situation. It can be nourished and nurtured by training and proper education. It is both innate and acquired. 

(c) Creative expressions are new or novel : All individuals are creative in diverse ways and in different degrees. It is not restricted to a chosen few. It brings newness or novelty in the system or something new into being. The emphasis is on the newness and lack of previous existence of the idea or product.

(d) Creative expressions are wider in scope : It has no limit or boundaries. It is a kind of adventurous and open thinking. It covers multifarious human accomplishments and all fields of human life.

(e) Creative expressions carries ego involvement : No one other than the creator can experience the warmth. happiness and satisfaction which he receives through his creation. The creator takes pride in his creation and hence makes ego involved statements like it is my idea and I have solved this problem, etc. 

(f) Creative abilities are not completely spontaneous rather it requires constant understanding discipline hardwork and patience to produce something new and unique. It is a kind of adventurous thinking and a departure from the closed thinking.

(g) Creativity is the ability to go beyond the immediate solution, redefine the problem or some part of it and unusual ideas and new approach to the problem. It Involves many abilities like fluency, flexibility originality and elaboration.

Characteristics of a Creative Person

According to Tylor, the characteristics of a Creative Person are the following :

(a) Strong momory powers and full of new ideas about things;

(b) Tendency to evaluate the ideas and actions of sell and others;

(c) Flexible and open minded;

(d) All the four qualities like originality. fluency. flexibility and power of elaboration;

(e) Sensitivity to problems, openness to new ideas and experiences;

(f) Curiosity and having intellectual persistence;

(g) Tendency to seek challenges and manipulative ideas;

(h) Prefering complex ideas and tolerance for ambiguity;

(i) Commitment to work and inclination to take risk;

(j) Resourceful, adventurous and extrovert, and 

(k) More perseverance and less traditional-bound.

Torrance indicated that a creative person is a (i) divergent thinker: (ii) forming ideas or hypothesis-concerning problem; (iii) testing these hypothesis and communicating the results, (iv) capable of modifying and retesting the hypothesis, (v) original, useful and socially accepted abilities and (vi) development of novel approach to solve problems.

 The researchers in their findings concluded the following behavioural characteristics of a creative person :

1. Flexible and open minded

2. Suggest better ways of doing a job

3. Originality of ideas and expression

4. Ability to use material, words or ideas in new ways

5. Bold and emotionally sensitive, resourceful, radical or a sense of adventure and curious nature 

6. A high degree of awareness, enthusiasm and concentration

7. Self-discipline and capacity to integrate things 

8. Respect for the opinions of others

9. Humorous, playful. dominant and self-assertive

10. Lack of rigidity, high values, intolerant for injustice, enjoy strange ideas, rich imagination and expressive

11. Need for autonomy and have high aspirations

12. Sense of self-confidence and reserve and

13. Venturesome and pursuit of self chosen interests

Adjustment and Maladjustment

Adjustment and Maladjustment

Meaning of Adjustment

The concept of adjustment is as old as human race on earth. From the very beginning of the period of Darwin the concept was used purely in biological sense. But man as a social animal not only he is to adapt to physical demands but also adjust to social pressures. Thus the concept of adjustment is not simple as adaptation. Psychologists and scholars differ considerably in Interpreting its meaning and nature and defined adjustment as follows:

1. According to Coleman adjustment is the "outcome of the individuals attempts to deal with stress and meet his needs to maintain harmonious relationships with the environment".

2. According to Smith, "A good adjustment is one which is both realistic and satisfying. At least in the long run, it reduces to a minimum the frustrations, the tensions and anxieties which a person must endure".

3. According to Gates and Jersild the "term adjustment is a continuous process by which a person varies his behaviour to produce a more harmonious relationship between himself and environment".

4. According to C.V. Good "adjustment is the process of finding and adopting modes of behaviour suitable to the environment or the changes in the environment".

5. According to Shaffer "adjustment is the process by which a living organism maintains a balance between its needs and the circumstances that influence the satisfaction of these needs".

Psychologists have interpreted adjustment from two points of views, l.e.. Adjustment as an achievement and Adjustment as a process.

Adjustment as an achievement means how efficiently an individual can perform his duties in different circumstances.

Similarly, adjustment as a process is of major importance for psychologists, teachers and parents and describes the ways and means of an individual's adaptation to himself and his environment without reference to the quality of such adjustment or its outcome in terms of success or failure. It only shows how an individual or a group or groups of people can cope up under changing circumstances otherwise known as adjustment as a process.

Thus we see that adjustment means reaction to the demands and pressures of social environment imposed upon the individual or it is not only the process of fitting oneself into available circumstances but also the process of changing the circumstances to fit one's needs.

Characteristics of Adjustment

In the above definitions, the following characteristics have been enumerated or stated.

1. Adjustment is the process of need reduction.

2. Adjustment is the interaction between an individual and with his environment.

3. It is a harmonious relationship between person and the environment. The degree of harmony depends on two things-(a) Certain potentialities within a person and (b) Character of environment. her mo

4. It is an interaction between a person and his environment. 

5. Adjustment brings happiness, efficiency and some degree of social feelings. 

6. Adjustment depends on external and internal demands. These are social, psychological and physiological needs of an individual.

7. Adjustment maintains physiological and psychological balance that influences the satisfaction of those needs.

8. Adjustment is a satisfactory relation of a person to his environment (physical, social and psychological.)

9. Adjustment refers both to a process and to a state.

10. The state of a person refers to a harmonious relationship between him and the environment. 

Meaning of Maladjustment

Maladjustment refers to the failure of the individual to adjust to the needs of self and demands of the environment. It can be judged from the behaviour of an individual shown in a given situation. Thus the pattern of behaviour is not conformity with the social and cultural patterns or within the range of the culturally permissible patterns at home or in the school or in the community is called maladjusted behaviour. These children are unmanageable in the home, causing difficulties for the parents and siblings. They are problem creators in school, retarded in educational achievements, destructive, quarrelsome and often socially immature. These children are sometimes called emotionally disturbed or socially unacceptable or delinquent or having psychological instability and require special educational treatment in order to develop their personal and educational readjustment. Thus, maladjustment refers to a disharmony between the person and his environment.

Causes of Maladjustment

There are numerous factors in home, society and school which leads to maladjustment in addition to the physical, psychological and psycho-social factors. Let us now discuss the factors contributing to maladjustment.

1. Physique

The physique and appearance play an important role in the social development of the child. Inadequacy of the biological structure and nervous system very much influences the adjustment of the individual. Eysenck is of the view that the tendency of maladjustment is to some extent genetically determined. Physical disabilities develop a number of problems resulting in maladjustment.

2. Long Sickness and Personal Inadequacies

When a child suffers from long diseases or sickness his/her social development and academic achievement in school suffers a lot. He/She feels perplexed and frustrated. This situation leads to maladjustment. Similarly there are ambitious parents who decide the goals for their children without understanding the mental status and abilities. This may frustrate the child and he/she may commit many mistakes which ultimately affects his stability.

3. Parental attitude and Broke" Home

Today the parents fail to give the child the love, affection security, acceptance and direction that he/she needs to develop adequately. Besides, there are rapid social and economic changes taking place and the old practices are being replaced by new ones. If the parents are unable to fulfil the needs and show lack of affection then it may lead to maladjustment. Similarly children in broken homes and conflicting family, do not get the affection, security and guidance which affect the mental stability of the children.

4. Poverty and Illiteracy

It is true that due to poor home condition the parents cannot fulfil the legitimate needs of their children which may lead to maladjusted behaviour. Similarly, illiterate parents sometimes may not give proper guidance and help to the child which are certainly required for smooth running of his/her life. This may also create confusion and conflict which may lead to maladjusted behaviour.

5. Acceptance of Social Values

There exists the reciprocal relationship between a person and the society in which he/she lives. He/She must adhere to the values and norms prescribed by the society. If the social values are maintained, the individual will be given the status of a normal person. But sometimes the individual is unable to cope up with the societal values which may lead to misunderstanding and turn to maladjusted behaviour.

6. Class Differences and Religious Practices

In our country it is a fact that there are privileged and underprivileged people living with different beliefs, habits. practices and thinking. Because of these differences, differential treatment are given to the children of different communities which may consequently lead to maladjustment.

7. Teacher and Curriculum

Teachers are the pivot in the school. They can either make or mar the nation if they so desire. But it is noticed that most of the teachers in the school are ill-trained and commit blunders in handling children and their problems. Similarly the needs of the children are not met in the present day curriculum effectively and also do not cope up with the changing environment. Thus this situation creates tension and anxiety in children which leads to maladjusted behaviour.

8. Classroom Climate or Unfavourable Atmosphere in the School

Classroom climate and unfavourable atmosphere in the school may create emotional tension and problems among the students which may ultimately lead to maladjusted behaviour. In the research study it is found out that authoritarian administration affects the mental health adversely and negatively and develops the feeling of inadequacy and incompetence which ultimately results in maladjusted behaviour.

9. Rigid Discipline, adverse report, discrepancy, lack of recognition, present day examination pattern and lack of guidance, etc., also develop the maladjusted behaviour among the children.

10. Unfulfilment of Need

If the needs of the children are not gratified then it may lead to frustration which ultimately affects the pattern of adjustment. This situation may develop, maladjusted behaviour among the children.

Symptoms of Maladjustment

An adjusted individual is able to make appropriate responses to overcome frustrating situations whereas the responses of a maladjusted person is inadequate and inappropriate, unable to resolve his internal conflict, partially successful in reaching his goals, lack of insight and potentialities and leads to abnormal emotional responses. The symptoms of maladjustment are the following: 

1. Physical Symptoms: Stuttering, stammering. scratching head, facial twitching, biting nails, rocking feet and restlessness.

2. Nervours Disorders: Fears-anxiety, phobias. timidity, oversensitivity. Withdrawal-unsociability and solitariness. Depression-brooding and melancholy periods. Excitability-overactivity. apathy-lethargy, unresponsiveness and no interests.

3. Habit Disorders: Speech-stammering and defect in speech. Sleep-night terrors, walking or talking in sleep; Nail biting, indiscriminate eating, physical symptoms like allergic conditions.

4. Behaviour Disorders: Unmanageable-defiance disobedience, aggressiveness, destructiveness, cruelty, jealous behaviour, stealing and begging, truancy, violence, hyperactivity, negativism and sex disturbances. 

5. Emotional Symptoms-Excessive worry, fear. inferiority, hatred, extreme timidity, persistent anxiety. conflict and tension. 

6. Educational and Vocational Difficulties: Unusual response to school discipline, inability to concentrate and inability to keep jobs.

All these symptoms are the signs of maladjustment.

Methods of Adjustment or Defence Mechanisms or Mechanisms of Adjustment

When an individual meets with stress in the form of a conflict, frustration, anxiety or pressure, his immediate reaction is either to be aggressive or to be withdrawal type or play as a neutral role in order to reduce his mental tension and to balance in the society. These common ways which the individual use to defend or escape from conflicts is known as defence or adjustment mechanisms. The defence mechanism helps the individual to preserve him self-concept and to protect him from anxiety. Every individual uses these mental mechanisms or protective devices to some extent or the other to escape from conflict situation.

Any habitual method of overcoming blocks, reaching goals satisfying motives, relieving frustration and maintaining equilibrium is called adjustment mechanism. Thus, in order to lead a healthy, happy and satisfying life one has to learn the various ways of adjustment, i.e., coping with one's environment as effectively as possible. The methods used for keeping and restoring harmony between the individual and his environment can be grouped into two categories, l.e., direct and indirect methods.

Direct Methods of Adjustment Mechanism

This is the method by which the individual makes efforts to reduce/release his tension consciously. These methods are logical and rational in nature and employed intentionally in getting permanent solution of the problem faced by the individual in a particular situation. The following are the direct method of adjustment mechanism:

1. Removing the Difficulty/Hurdles

Here the individual tries to either remove or destroy all the barriers and difficulties which comes in his/her way to reach his goals.

2. Improving Efforts

When one finds it difficult to remove his/her barriers or solves his/her problems to cope up with the environment he/ she may attempt with a new zeal by increasing his/her efforts to overcome the difficulties. This activity develops confidence and improves his/her behaviour.

3. Change in the Working Pattern

When the individual sees that he/she is unable to remove or destroy his/her barriers, he/she thinks again about his/her approach and makes necessary changes in the means or path to achieve the goal/destination.

4. Adopting Compromising Means

For maintaining harmony between himself/herself and the environment one may change his/her direction of efforts by changing the original goal or may seek partial substitution of goal or may adopt compromising means to maintain harmony.

5. Substitution to Other Goals

In spite of the best attempts, sometimes it is found out that the individual fails to achieve his/her goal. If this situation occurs then the individual substitutes the original goals by some new goals, i.e., the person who could not become 1.A.S. Officer, may adopt the profession of teaching.

6. Withdrawal

There are many persons who do not like to face the confrontation and take risk in their life. They try to adjust by accepting defeat or withdrawing themselves from the situation to maintain balance in the environment.

7. Making Proper Choices and Decisions

When a person is confronted with two or more equally desirable goals he/she adopts the method of problem solving and starts analysing the total situation and tries to decide more rationally and logically the choices and decisions to achieve the goals.

Indirect Methods of Adjustment Mechanism

This is the method by which a person tries to seek temporary adjustment or makes an effort to reduce tension unconsciously. The following are the mental devices/ mechanisms in the process of one's adjustment to one's self and the environment.

1. Projection

Putting blame on others for one's failure is called projection. It means to project one's feelings, thoughts, and aspirations on external objects or in which the individual places the blame for his difficulties to others. By this mechanism the individual is able to direct his aggressive feelings towards others rather than towards himself. A student who has been caught in the examination for cheating may satisfy himself that others had also cheated. Similarly an individual who is lazy prefers to justify himself by declaring that he does not work because all others are not working.

2. Rationalisation

It means giving justification. This is a process of protecting our feelings of worth or self-esteem by giving desirable but untrue excuses. For example, the person who could not get the grapes, may say that 'grapes are sour' and he does not want to have them. A boy who is late for school finds many excuses, i.e., the clock was slow, breakfast was late or she failed just by two marks because the teacher had a grudge against her. A promotion is not received because the employer is biased.

3. Repression

It is a mechanism in which painful experiences, conflicts and unfulfilled desires are pushed down into our unconscious. In this way one unconsciously tries to forget the things that might make him anxious or uncomfortable. One tries to get temporary relief from the tension or anxiety by believing that the tension producing does not exist. A person who hates his father and a person who wished her mother dead, cannot express their feelings as they cause pain, shame or guilt. Such repressed desire or thoughts however do not remain hidden or permanently inhibited. They crop up nightmares, anxiety, reactions, stuttering and other nervous manifestations. Through repression a person conveniently forgets the things that might make him uncomfortable.

4. Suppression

In suppression we consciously decide to exclude an idea from our thoughts, our action and conversation whereas in repression painful and anxiety producing experiences are unconsciously and automatically excluded from the conscious thought process. Suppression is the wilful evasion of an irritating conflict, the conscious rejection of a painful experience or a deliberate attempt to forget a distasteful event.

5. Simple Denial

The easiest way of maintaining the balance of personality development is to deny the facts which could create conflict in the mind. When children are busy in play activities, if parents call them, the children will say they heard nothing. Adults are also not always prepared to admit their fault/failures frankly in their daily life. Denial helps to postpone facing a problem or a failure.

6. Compensation

This is a mechanism by which an individual tries to balance or cover up his deficiency in one field by exhibiting his strength in another field or try to overcome a failure or deficiency in one area through achieving recognition in another area. For example, an academically weak student may work hard and show his abilities in dramatics and compensate his failure, i.e., the boy who is weak in English compensates in math. Thus this is a mechanism which provides an individual with substitute satisfaction, when his actual needs are thwarted.

7. Sublimation

It is a mechanism of substitution by which an individual directs his energies and drives away from activities which are socially or morally unacceptable, towards those which are approved in order to satisfy a need. It is usually related to the sex drive, an individual who is unable to satisfy his sex needs would make up by reading romantic books, drawing romantic pictures or writing romantic poems. It is the mechanism in which all divisions of the psychic, i.e., the id, ego, and the super-ego work in concert with each other. An unmarried woman interested in children may give expression to her repressed marital urge by engaging herself in orphanage work or in any child welfare institution.

8. Identification

It is an adjustment mechanism which enables one to achieve satisfaction from the success of other people, groups or organisations. An adolescent who accepts a film star as his ideal tries to appear and act in the manner he has seen the star acting and students often identify themselves with their favourite teachers. As a result of this we adopt the mannerisms and habits of our favourite artists, teachers, friends and filmstars, in dress, in speech and in other styles of living.