Theories of Personality- Theory of Formal Discipline, Theory of Identical 'Components' Rather Than 'Elements' and Theory of Identical Components the Basis for Social Utility Movement

 Theory of Formal Discipline 

The notion that the mental dell. orl (extra) blank faculties can be developed uniformly as a whole by training in one subject or on one kind of data has been known in education as "the theory of formal discipline." The term 'formal' implies that it is the form of the activity and not its content, not the subject-matter itself, that is important in education. If the activity is of the form of memorizing, it is assumed that memory could be trained no matter what is memorized. To learn to reason, one has merely to practice the forms of reasoning. The term 'discipline' implies the real spirit of the theory which is that the major virtues of a tenacious memory, an in flexible will, pure and impersonal judgment and reason are to be secured only by very vigorous and full exercise of the faculties.

Theory of Identical 'Components' Rather Than 'Elements'

It has been discovered that, on the whole, the carry-over from one situation to another is roughly proportional to the degree of resemblance in the situations. This conclusion suggested the possibility that transfer takes place to the extent to which there are identical elements in the old and new tasks. If the relatively novel situation in part or in parts identical with the familiar stimulus pattern, then it should be possible to carry over from the one to the other the reactions which the individual had learned to make to those particular conditions.

As the literature on transfer of training developed, the term 'identical element' unfortunately came to be used in an atomistic sense It was used to refer to highly detailed elements to extremely narrow common units: almost, at times, to indivisible entities. However, more careful treatments of the problem did not use the word 'element' in this narrowly atomistic sense. 'What the theory of identical elements demands' writes Woodworth. "is that transfer should be of concrete performances, whether simple or complex, makes no difference to the theory. Confusion will be avoided by using the word constituent' or 'component' in place of 'element' and by speaking of the theory of identical components."

The theory of identical components, then, would not predict that practice in tennis would improve one's attention, concentration, will, or temperament for meeting all situations or dealing with all kinds of data equally, but would affirm that certain skills, procedures, and attitudes such as judging the fight of a ball, remembering to keep one's eye on the ball, and to keep cool by thinking of the game instead of the spectators would carry over to another activity such as handball to the extent, roughly, that the two games and the general situations have important characteristics in common. What sorts of responses, according to the theory of identical components, may transfer? Or, expressed in another way, what kinds of components may two or more activities or situations have in common? 

1. Transfer of Facts Information

 Not only do we transfer attitudes and procedures to new tasks, but we also may utilize knowledge gained in a given situation in other situations. This is what is presumed to happen when the child uses his knowledge of the simple addition combinations in performing column addition Previous knowledge may provide cues for the solution of new problems in geometry. Historical information may make the literature of a period more understandable. Psychological principles may be applied in writing attention-getting leads for newspaper stories. With information, as with other responses, the amount of transfer, according to the theory of identical comports, is determined by the common features of the original learning activities and the situations where knowledge is applied. In many instances little transfer occurs because the individual fails to detect the underlying similarities in the situations which confront him; often, in fact, because he fails to try to find such similarities.

2. Transfer of Techniques of Reacting

During practice in memorizing, subject may learn a variety of methods of attack upon the particular subject-matter. For example, if he is learning a list of items. he may hit upon the technique of repeating them rhythmically, a procedure which he may use with lists of different things. He may find that searching for certain of the items to use as landmarks is profitable, and this device may be used on other materials, in some cases advantageously, and in others disadvantageously. Again the subject may use the plan of learning by the whole rather than the part method, and this procedure may be adapted to other kinds of material. From experience, he may discover that his 'memory' is not so bad, and this feeling of confidence may recur whenever any task of memorizing is presented. On the other hand, he may acquire habits of using ineffective associations, of disliking such work, of doubting his capacity to improve. When transferred, these activities would interfere with the learning of new data. What is carried over, then, from the point of view of identical components, is not an improved faculty of memory, but group of new devices, ideas, attitudes-in a word, a new technique, which may be good or bad in whole or in parts.

Theory of Identical Components the Basis for Social Utility Movement

The principle that transfer takes place through identical components provided the psychological basis for the social utility movement in education. If the amount of transfer depends upon t the presence of common features, it is obviously important to make the activities of the school as nearly as possible like those which actually occur in life. The transfer of methods of attack, of knowledge and insights, techniques of learning and problem solving, interest, poise, habits and ideals of caution, honesty, accuracy thoroughness, initiative, etc., to the situations of life will be large, supposedly, to the degree that the subject-matter and activities of the classroom are similar to those encountered in life outside the school.

The social utility movement has turned the attention of the school to the real and significant concerns of human living, and away from unreal or fantastic problems and trivial and impractical information. Some of the results of this emphasis on reality in the school are attempts to determine what words we need to spell in the writing which we actually do: what arithmetical knowledge and ability we need to use what historical and scientific information is essential or worth-while to know; what problems in relation to health, recreation, public affairs. home membership, vocational orientation and training and personal and social adjustment we must solve in satisfying and helpful living The modern school gives students opportunities to put useful knowledge and abilities to work in meaningful and life-like situations.