Translation-Cum-Grammar Method

Translation-Cum-Grammar Method

This method is also known as classical method. It is the oldest method and came in India with the Britishers. In this method, the words, phrases, idioms and sentences are taught with the help of examples in the mother tongue. The sentences in English and mother tongue were compared side by side. Theory of language is interpreted in detail, but there was very little practice given on the use of language. This method has no psychological base but has two philosophical bases, viz,:

1. A foreign language can be easily learnt through translation. 

2. Grammar is the soul of language.

Principles of Translation-cum-Grammar Method

Thompson and Wyatt say that this method is based on the sound principles:

1. Translation interprets foreign phraseology best.

2. In the process of interpretation, the foreign phraseology assimilated and 

3. The structure for a foreign language is best learnt when compared and contrasted with that of the mother-tongue.

Characteristics of Translation-cum-Grammar Method

Characteristics of this method are as follows:

i) The unit of teaching is word and not sentence.

(ii) Text books occupy an important place in this method. 

(iii) Mother tongue dominates or is used for explaining the meaning of English words, sentences and grammatical rules. 

(iv) Translation of paragraphs from mother tongue into English and vice versa is given to the students for practice. 

(v) Grammar is taught by deductive method, i.e., the teacher explains the rules of grammar and the students memorise it by rote method. 

(vi) Stress is laid on reading and writing.

(vii) During the process of translation and grammar method, the structures of English language can be learnt easily. This is because of linguistic materials presented for study.

Procedure

There are two kinds of translation method, i.e., (1) Translation from English into mother tongue. (2) Translation from mother tongue into English. In this method, the text book occupies an important place as it has all reading materials.

Following steps are involved in this method:

Step I. The teacher selects the passages of English in accordance with the intellectual level of the students and makes ideal reading of the passage. The he begins the lesson with the vocabulary items. The meanings of the words an explained in the mother-tongue to the learner. 

Step II. The teacher translates the passage with the help of mother tongue. 

Step III. The teacher explains the grammar items in the mother tongue. 

Step IV. The learners are asked to copy the grammar rules in their note books. This is followed by exercises based on grammatical items. The learner may also be asked to translate into foreign language sentences from the mother tongue by using grammatical items already learnt.

Step V. Finally the unfinished exercises and learning of rules are given as assignment. 

Thus, this method starts with the meaning of words and then explains the meaning of phrases and sentences.

Merits (Advantages) of this Method. 

Translation-cum-Grammar method has following merits:

(i) This method is economical at it saves time and energy of the teacher to teach a foreign language. 

(ii) It enhances students vocabulary.

(iii) This method is based on the principles of psychology as it is based in Appreciative theory'. This theory states, "Learning connect old and new ideas." 

(iv) This method gives inspiration for independent study. 

(v) It helps in better and clear understanding of words, phrases and idioms which can be translated into mother-tongue. Thus, it enables in better understanding of a foreign language.

(vi) It follows the maxim "proceed from known to unknown." As the child is already familiar with his mother tongue, he can easily comprehend in English.

(vii) It enables the students to write correct English by telling the rules of grammar first.

(viii) This method is convenient for Indian teachers because they are not required to use material aid while teaching.

(ix) It is effective method and can be used in over crowded classes.

(x) English grammar is easily learnt through comparative process. answer in mother tongue. 

 

Demerits (Limitations) of this Method. 

Some of the demerits of Translation-cum-Grammar method are as following: 

1. This method does not give emphasis on speaking, reading and writing aspects.

2. It does not teach correct articulation, intonation, and pronunciation.

3. There are some words, idioms and phrases in English, which reflect the culture, traditions and customs of English people. They cannot be translated into mother-tongue without losing the word correct effect.

4. English language has some such structures which cannot be translated into Indian languages, e. g. "the".

5. Sometimes the literal translation becomes e. g. was thinking-Mai tha soch raha. Sweet' opines, 'Only a limited number of sentences can be taught by this method."

6. It lays much emphasis on grammar, so teaching becomes monotonous.

7. This method does not establish harmony between thought and expression. 

8. This method disregards the maxim of "proceeding from whole to part method" as in this method the unit of teaching is word (put) and not the sentence (whole).

9. It neglects silent reading by the pupils.

10. This method is dull and uninteresting for the students who remain passive listeners.

 Suggestions for Improvement 

The shortcoming of this method can be lightened if the following suggestions are followed:

(1) Large clauses should be divided into small groups. 

(2) Questions should be distributed equally in the class.

(3) Teachers should speak with correct pronunciation and grammatically correct sentences. 

(4) Teachers should stress those points at which Indian vernaculars use differ from English. 

(5) Students should be asked to do much written work.

(6) Chorus work, for instance, singing poems should be done.

Preparation of Blue Print of Achievement Test Or Construction of Achievement Test

 Preparation of Blue Print of Achievement Test Or Construction of Achievement Test

Preparation of Blue Print of achievement test is very important for examination in English because it consists of objective type of questions indicating the number of items in each cell. It is prepared in accordance with objectives of teachings, subject-matter in curriculum and types of questions by determining quantitative weightage and organizing the questions in three dimensional chart. This is known as blue print of test. While constructing the achievement test, based on blue print, the following things should be kept in mind

(i) Individual differences.

(ii) Questions should be balanced.

(iii) Results should be same.

(iv) Language in the scoring key should be easy.

(v) Maximum children should be able to attempt it.

Steps in Preparation of Blue Print

Step-1-Instructional Objectives: The objective is to test the knowledge, understanding, application and skill of the students. In languages, the major objectives are categorized as knowledge, comprehension and expression.

Step-2-Design: It specifies weightages to:

(a) Weightage of Teaching Objectives: Generally, test should be for the fulfillment of all objectives of teaching. So prior to the preparation of the test all the required weightage on objectives of teachings should be determined:

(b) Weightage to Content Units: While preparing blue print of achievement test, it is necessary to cover, entire subject-matter so it becomes essential to determine weightage, keeping in view the extension of different subject-matter, and the importance pertaining to the subject-matter. If the topics in subject-matter are large in number, then it will be convenient to classify the topics into units.

Weightage to content units

(c) Weightage to the Different Forms of Questions: After determining marks on objectives and content unit, it is essential to pay attention on the types of questions for test. So it should also be determined as to how many of the questions of each type (essay type/short answer objectives) are to be prescribed and what weightage should be laid on them.

(d) Weightage to Difficulty Level: It should also be noted that the level of the questions should neither be very difficult nor very easy. The questions level should grow from easy to difficult gradually. They should be divided into three levels. Easy questions should be at first, average questions in middle and difficult questions in the last. According to difficulty level, weightage can be determined.

Step-III-Blue Print: A blue print is a distribution of the weightage that various aspects of English should have in a test specially constructed for it. It is a pre-requisite at the planning stage. It helps to guide a teacher in constructing a test. It indicates the weightage to be given to various skills and the types of test.

Blue Print of English I paper of class X for the Examination of Board of Secondary Education

Audio-Visual Aids In The Teaching Of English

AUDIO-VISUAL AIDS IN THE TEACHING OF ENGLISH

In teaching, the teacher conveys some concepts to students When to convey the concepts more efficiently and successfully to students, the help of some verbal-visual material things is taken, those things are called audio-visual aids. The rationale is to appeal to eyes and ears of pupils and make the learning easy as well as permanent. It is the era of audio-visual aids in Education. Prof. C. S. Bhandari opines, "Our aim of teaching English is to import certain skills without making the process of teaching and learning monotonous." Here audio-visual aids come as rescue. Although a teacher is the best audio-visual aid, he does need some other audio- visual aids to supplement him. These aids help him in imparting good instruction. F. W. Noel is right when he says, "Good instruction is the foundation of any educational programme. Audio- visual training aids are a component part of that foundation." Hence, an English teacher should know about the various audio-visual aids he can use successfully in teaching English.

Types of Audio-Visual Aids :

The different types of audio-visual aids can put into three categories:

(a) Audio Aids: All those materials which function as aids by appealing to the ears only are called audio aids. They are usually used to form speech habit. 

The following are the main audio aids :

1. Gramophone, Linguaphone and Headphone

2. Tape-recorder.

3. Radio

(b) Visual Aids: Material aids which appeal only to eyes are called visual aids. Some visual aids are:

4. Text-book

5. Black-board.

6. Flannel-board

7. Flash-cards

8. Pictures

9. Charts maps. figures and models

10. Slides and films strips.

11. Epidiascope.

(c) Audio-Visual Aids: These are the aids which appeal to both ears and eyes. These aids are expensive. The following are included in it:

12. Film

13. Television

The use of all these aids in teaching English is described in the following lines

1. Gramophone, Linguaphone and Headphone: 

These aids are very useful in teaching students to speak English and correct pronunciation. The linguaphones assist in learning English sounds. Gramophones and linguaphones are cheaper than other audio aids. In them, records are available with booklets. They repeat speech patterns with correct pronunciation, intonation etc. over and over again. The material is carefully selected and graded. One record is worth three complete lessons. Linguaphones are also used to teach grammatical structure, poetry, usage, etc. Such records can be available from the English Language Teaching Institute, Allahabad. The English teacher should know the technique of stopping and restarting the records. The headphones solve the problem of dealing with individual students. With this he can attend each student.

2. Tape-recorder: 

It is a costly aid. It records the words uttered by a speaker. Those words can be reproduced later on as many times as desired. In teaching English, it can be used for the following purposes :-

(a) Speech-correction.

(b) Reading a talk, story, play, poetry, pronunciation of different word, etc.

(c) Reading improvement

(d) Musical appriciation.

(e) Sound knowledge.

(f) Teacher's comments on film strips and slides etc.

Tape-recorders should be used for well selected material and it should be presented stage by stage. But the teacher must know that by writing them off and on, he can spoil the effect. Pointing towards the importance of gramophone and tape-recorder, S. R. Ingram has said, "If used intelligently, the gramophone and the tape-recorder can help the teacher to provide a wider range of linguistic experience, variety in material and style and a real stimulus to individual effort."

3. Radio: 

Radio is a useful aid in language learning, since comprehensive courses in language learning are presented by radio. It can prove more useful by:

(i) The co-operation between educational and broadcasting authorities.

(ii) Recording radio broadcasts.

(iii) Making the broadcasting programme known to pupils

(iv) Adjusting the periods of English with the broadcast.

The following are the merits of radio as an aid :-

(i) It helps in developing comprehension by listening.

(ii) It gives the correct spoken language.

(iii) It presents the lectures of outstanding speakers.

(iv) It can be used inside as well as outside the class-room.

(v) It is cheaper.

But the following are the main demerits of radio :-

(i) Repetition is not possible.

(ii) Adjustment between English periods and broadcasting time becomes very difficult.

(iii) Children sometimes find it uninteresting due to impersonal touch.

4. Text-book: 

It is an aid as well as a method. In olden days, too, books served as aids. These days, text-books are according to the curriculum prescribed for a class. A text book should have the following qualities:-

(i) The subject-matter should be based on students' liking and interest. 

(ii) The matter should be graded properly.

(iii) The subject-matter should be practical. 

(iv) Books should be attractive and illustrative.

(v) These should cover the objectives of teaching English. 

(vi) At the end, sufficient exercises should be given

(vii) They should be well printed but not costly.

5. Black-board: 

It is the cheapest aid which can be handled easily. Almost in every school, in every class, there are black-boards. They are of different types such as wall, standing, reversible. The boards should be in light green colour which, soothes eyes. This aid can be used for the following purposes in English teaching :-

(i) For exposition and explanation of words.

(ii) For teaching structures.

(iii) For teaching grammatical forms.

(iv) For teaching writing.

(v) For writing sentences, answers and compositions.

(vi) For drawing figures and pictures.

(vii) Finally, for testing.

The teacher should follow the following suggestions in order to make the black-board a useful aid -

(i) The board should be put in a correct place. Every student of the class should be in a position to see it.

(ii) The teacher should write in straight lines with agreeable space

(iii) Coloured chalks should be used for drawing sketches and pictures

(iv) The black-board writing should be legible.

(v) While writing on the board, some attention should be given to the class

(vi) The board should be cleaned before leaving the class.

(vii) Too much use should be avoided.

6. Flannel-board: 

It is also called a flannelgraph or felt-board. It can be made easily A board of plywood is covered with flannel or felt. The board should be 60 cm x 90 cm. Figures, pictures, pieces of papers etc. with sand paper on their backs can be stuck to it. They can be easily removed. It can be used for:

(i) Teaching reading.

(ii) Teaching story

(iii) Teaching word and sentence

(iv) Teaching oral composition.

As the teaching proceeds, pictures, figures, words and sentences written on pieces of paper are demonstrated by the teacher one by one on the flannel-board.

7. Flash-cards: 

Flash-cards are like playing-cards or post- cards. They can be 15 inches long and 2 or 3 inches wide. They are made of soft thick papers. On them, pictures are made with illustrative words or sentences written below them. They can also help in mastering correct word order and speech habits.

8. Pictures: 

These are widely used and are very useful aids in teaching English. There is an old Chinese saying, "A picture is worth ten thousand words." According to Ruskin, "A room without pictures is like a house without windows." In teaching English, pictures of schools, shop, market, fair, railway station, post-office, river, mountain, man, boys, girls, festivals and picturesque scenes can be shown to the class for teaching: 

(i) vocabulary 

(ii) structures 

(iii) com- position and 

(iv) dramatization. 

Pictures can be of these kinds :

(a) Picture-postcards

(b) Snap-shots

(c) Cutouts from newspapers and periodicals and

(d) Wall pictures.

Advantages of Pictures Some of various advantages of pictures in English teaching are as follows:

(i) They are useful in Direct Method. Pupils can easily form an association between the word and its meaning.

(ii) The help in developing aesthetic sense.

(iii) They also help in developing observation and imagining powers of students

(iv) They are the means of giving concrete form to abstract things.

(V) They are based on psychological principle of interest,

Some Suggestions

Following are some suggestions to make pictures more useful as a teaching aid

(i) They should not be overused.

(ii) They should be put at a place from where pupil can see them.

(iii) Pictures should be bright and colourful.

(iv) They should be clear contrast of light, colour and out- line with a lot of life and movement in the scenes.

(v) They should have a clear bearing over the lesson.

9. Figures, Charts, Maps, and Models: 

Within figures come sketches and diagrams Figures and charts are valuable aids. They are neither costly nor difficult to handle. The teacher can draw them on the board or on paper. They supplement the work of pictures. Things which cannot be taught with pictures and are not clear through a picture can be taught by figures and charts Vocabulary, grammar, stories, sentence structures can be taught through them. Maps can be used in teaching about cities, countries, rivers, mountains, oceans, seas, etc. Models are used to give an illusion of reality. They are made of clay, plastic, cardboard, paper, rubber word etc. They can facilitate Direct Method According to F. G French, "We can use the models for telling stories, for conversation. and for making the abstract language feel."

10. Slides and Filmstrips Slides and filmstrips are other useful aids for showing objects and actions. Slides are single, whereas filmstrips exhibit a series in a compact and economical form.  They can prove efficient in teaching (1) sentence structure (i) oral and written composition of life, society and culture of peoples of different countries and (iv) stories. The educational slides are available from the Directorate of Extension, Programmes for Secondary Education, New Delhi and foreign embassies. 

11. Epidiascope: 

It is an easily operating apparatus which projects the enlarged images of objects whether opaque or not by reflection on to a screen or wall. It can be used for 

(i) teaching composition, calligraphy, structures, story,

(ii) revising lesson and

(iii) projecting maps, pictures, figures charts, pages from book, extracts, solid objects.

Its advantages are:

(i) There is no need of enlarging pictures, etc

(ii) Small pictures can be easily stored than large ones

(iii) Teaching becomes interesting.

12. Film: 

Film is an expensive but very useful aid. It appeals not only to eyes cars, but also emotions. A film is full of colour, movement and new ideas. For educational purpose, they can be used for:

(i) to teach phonetics and pronunciation,

(ii) to show English stories, plays and novels,

(iii) to acquaint pupils with the life, custom and culture of different countries,

(iv) to acquaint them with wild life and

(v) to teach them through the lives of great people.

13. Television: 

Television is an expensive aid. It appeals to both ears and eyes. It has all the advantages of a radio plus the advantages of visual pictures. It is available only at some privileged schools these days. It can be used for all those purpose in English teaching for which a radio is used.

Advantages of Audio-Visual Aids :

(i) They create interest for learning in students.

(ii) They are time saving, because they explain the idea easily and precisely.

(iii) By their use, the burden of the teacher is reduced.

(iv) The teacher can improve his own English by aural aids, students.

(v) They are the sources of a variety of experiences for

(vi) They are bases of Direct Method.

(vii) English is a difficult language. Audio-visual aids make learning English easy.

(viii) A good English teaching is possible only in a English environment. Audio-visual aids help in creating that type of environment

Limitations of Audio-Visual Aids 

(i) Some aids such as television are costly and cannot be afforded by many schools.

(ii) They give an impersonal effect which is not mach effective

(iii) The teachers are required to know the technical skill handle them.

(iv) Some teachers overuse them.

Some Suggestions:

(i) They should be used only where they are needed. Overuse should always be avoided.

(ii) Teachers should use the cheaper ands efficiently, if y ones cannot be procured.

(iii) When the purpose is fulfilled, they should be removal. 

(iv) They should be according to the age and harmonal development of students,

Audio Lingual Method or The Structural Approach- Meaning, Types of Structure, Procedure of teaching, Principles, Aims, Characteristics, Merits & Demrits

 Audio Lingual Method or The Structural Approach

This approach came into existence in the sixties in Tamil Nadu and was further popularized by Central Institute of English Hyderabad. This approach has found recognition in the schools of Uttar Pradesh under the guidance of the English Language teaching Institute Allahabad.

The structural approach is the result of researches made in the field of teaching English as a foreign language. The American linguists supported this method. They regarded English as a living and evolving thing and not merely as a form of expression. It is also known as "Aural Oral Approach", "Aural Linguistic Approach" and "Structural Approach"

The Aural-Oral Approach means, "teaching a language by giving opportunities to the students to hear and speak the language." 

"Structural approach is a scientific study of the fundamental structures of the English language, their analysis and logical arrangement."-Brewington 

Menon and Patel has defined it as "the structural approach is based on the belief that in the learning of a foreign language, mastery of structures is more important than the acquisition of vocabulary."

The Structural Approach is based on the belief that in the learning of a foreign language, mastery of structure is more important than the acquisition of vocabulary. It is believed that learning through listening and speaking is much suitable to the students. 

Structures are the baste language patterns (there are about 275 of language patterns which constitute the core). Every structure embodies an important grammatical point. Structures are graded in a manner that each structure follows naturally from the one immediately preceding. Drills form an important part of the structural approach.

Types of Structures 

Structures are tools of a language. They should not be confused with sentences Structures had not to have any grammatical background, whereas sentences are grammatical order of words Structures can be divided into following four categories

1. Sentence Patterns: A sentence pattern is a model for sentence, which will be of the same shape and construction although made up of different words. eg. He reads a story. Shut the window. Stand up.

2. Phrase Patterns: Phrase pattern is a group of words which has meaning even without being a sentence. This structure also follows order of words and this order cannot be changed, e.g., on the table, for six years, the old woman.

3. Formulas: Groups of words used regularly on certain occasions are called formulas eg.. Good morning, Excuse me. Thank you.

4. Idiomatic Structures: Groups of words that must be learnt as a whole because it is not always possible to understand the meaning from the knowledge of the separate words are known as idiomatic structures, e.g., inspite of in order to, live form hand to mouth.

Selection of Structures 

Those structures should be selected which have the following characteristics:

1. Usefulness: Usefulness of a structure depends on how frequently it occurs in spoken and written form and how far it provides for the further building up of the language

2. Simplicity: The simplicity of a structure depends on its form and meaning. 

3. Teachability: It is easy to teach structures that are easily demonstrated in a realistic situation rather than those structures, which are abstract and cannot be demonstrated. 

4. Surrender Value: When one structure leads to another, it is said to chair This way one item can be correlated with the other. have a surrender value. For example, this is a chair and this is the leg of the

5. Structures should be up to the level of the learner's age

6. They should be upto the level of the learner's capacity to learn. 

Procedure of Teaching

In this approach, every structure is taught separately Steps can be as under :

(i) First of all, presentation of item is made in appropriate situations by the teacher.

(ii) Practising of oral drill by the student of these situations.

(iii) Presentation of the item in some new situations.

(iv) Oral drill by the students of situations which were created in the third step.

(v) Overall Drill.

Principles of Structural Approach

According to F.L. French the three principles of structural approach are :

(i) Importance of the child's activity rather than the activity of the teacher.

(ii) Importance of speech for firmly fixing word as speech is the basis of acquiring other skills like reading and writing.

(iii) Importance of language habit formation because it helps to arrange words in suitable English sentence pattern in order to replace the sentence pattern of the child's mother tongue.

Besides this some other principles should be followed : 

(i) Mastery of structures,

(ii) Meaningful situation, 

(iii)Use of text books, and

(iv) Method and situation of teaching.

Aims of Structural Approach 

Aims of Structural Approach are as follows:

(i) To lay the foundation of English through drill and repetition of about 275 graded structures.

(ii) To enable the children to attain mastery over an essential vocabulary of about 3000 root words for active use. 

(iii) To correlate the teaching of grammar and composition with the reading lessons.

(iv) To teach the four fundamental skills namely understanding, speaking, reading and writing.

Characteristics of Structural Approach 

Characteristics of Structural Approach are as follows

(1) It is very important in forming language habits.

(ii) It is important for the speaking point of view. Structures are presented orally and the students practice them through a number of oral drills, then reading and writing skills are introduced.

(iii) Practice of structural approach makes pupils active.

(iv) The approach involves selection and grading of structures to be taught, the difficult and complex structures are taken up at a later stage

(v) It is a multi-skill approach. It aims at achieving the four fold linguistic aims of teaching English.

Merits of Structural Approach

Main merits of structural approach are as follows:

(i) It facilitates the learning of English by imparting the knowledge of its structures.

(ii) It creates appropriate environment for learning the language.

(iii) Due to much oral drilling, whatever is learnt in the class, remains stable in their mind.

(iv) It develops and improves speech habits of students.

(v) This is an interesting method of teaching English because teaching aids are used which motivate the students and they learn English easily.

(vi) This method enables to make proper selection and gradation of the learning material.

(vii) It encourages students for free exposition or expression of thoughts.

(viii) The four pillars of language learning-listening, reading, writing and speaking are accomplished by this method.

(ix) This approach is useful in teaching of prose and poetry.

(x) It is based on scientific principle. The work of the teacher is systematic which amounts to 'economy of efforts'.

Demerits/Limitations

Limitations of this methods are as follows

(i) This approach is more suitable for lower classes because at higher level, the students feel bored by repetition of drills. 

(ii)This approach is material-centered, while the modern concept of education gives emphasis on child-centered education and activities. 

(iii) Selection and gradation of structure do not help to eradicate the problems of English.

(iv) This approach is not suitable for teaching text books prescribed in curriculum.

(v) This method minimizes language learning because entire language can not be learnt by mutation and repetition.

(vi) This method is not suitable for teaching prose, poetry, grammar and pronunciation.

(vii) It tends to overlook the linguistic habits already formed while learning the mother tongue.

(viii) Only well-graded and well-selected structure pattern can be taught through this approach.

Linguistic Approach

 Linguistic Approach

During the second world war, the problem of teaching foreign languages and English as a foreign language for full communication was faced adequately. This gave rise to a new approach known as the linguistic approach or Lingua method Linguists insist on the imitation and memorization of basic conversational sentences as spoken by native speaker. They also provided the descriptions or the distinctive elements of intonation pronunciation, morphology and syntax that constitute the structures of the language which gradually emerges as one masters the basic sentences and variations. The powerful idea of patterns; practice was developed because patterns rather than individual sentences particularly can be transferred from the native language.

The subject-matter of this approach contains:

(i) Basic conversational sentences for memorization.

(ii) Structural notes to help the students perceive and produce the stream of speech and sentence patterns of the foreign language.

(iii) Pattern practice exercise to establish patterns as habits

(iv) Laboratory material for oral aural practice out of class

(v) Opportunity for use of the language in communication rather than in translation.

Thus, this method limits itself to the working knowledge of a language and it is easier to learn in this way since one has not to go through intricacies. It is also easier since it needs minimum labour and saves so many technicalities. Besides this, it makes use of the latest technical devices in language teaching.

Communicative Approach- Characteristics, Advantages & Disadvantages

Communicative Approach

The educationists have seen and analysed shortcomings in the previously adopted methods and approaches and worked at introducing and developing a new method or approach suitable for teaching English in Indian conditions. Their activities resulted in the origin of a new approach named as communicative approach. It lays emphasis on the practical or user aspect of the language. It enables the students to communicate their ideas freely in and outside the class-room. This approach came into being as a result of realisation that with rapid development and industrialisation, the Indian people have to increasingly interact with the world and a method was needed to help to bridge the gap. As the basic purpose of a language is to impact ability to communicate one's ideas, notion, needs and feelings. This approach aims at communicative competence, including linguistic competence and ability to use the language appropriately.

Characteristics 

The main characteristics of this approach are as follows:

(i) It is based on the principles of use, communication and practice' in real situations. A situation can be un-predictable, varied and spontaneous.

(ii) It is based on the need analysts and looks forward to plan new kinds of syllabus and curriculum.

(iii) It is based on the old maxim of simple to complex and concrete to abstract, in which the simpler exercises are put at first followed and receiving the complex ones for a later stage. The progress is based on the performance requirement and not on the grasp of grammar or vocabulary.

(iv) It lays stress on the use of language rather than in its structures.

(v) It also lays stress on the semantic value of the language, it was means, to understand the meaning of vocabulary in real life situations.

(vi) The students are provided enough opportunities to communicate with the help of dialogues debates, discussions, dramas and other class-room activities.

(vii) It is an integrative approach which takes care of the four objectives of language learning.

(viii) It is a student centerd approach and puts the student in the core of the learning process.

Thus it is different from the traditional approaches of teaching English as it aims at the competence of the students in real life situations and results in development.

Advantages 

This approach has the following advantages

(i) This approach enables the students to communicate their ideas, feelings and thinking in a logical manner.

(ii) It develops the speech ability in the students.

(iii) Difficult and complex concepts can be taught through this approach. 

(iv) It is presented in such a way that the learner commits minimum errors.

(v) Diagnosis and remediation is also provided to the weak students.

(vi) It is based on the functional utility of the language.

Disadvantages 

The disadvantages of the communicate approach can be numerated as follows:

(i) This is a new approach and yet to be tested in language learning.

(ii) It ignores grammar and structures of language.

(iii) It requires trained teachers to teach with this approach. Teachers should have mastery over speech factor of the language.

(iv) It has not yet been fully implemented anywhere and its result is still quite ambiguous. It can be said that, though being a good approach it needs experimentation in the real life situations. It would need proper training of teachers and development of adequate and suitable training aids need to be effective.

Maxims of English Teaching

Maxims of Teaching

Maxims of teaching are of great importance and useful to get the positive out-comes of teaching-learning process. Maxims of teachings are the formulas and general rules of Teaching drawn from experiences of teachers and educationists and psychologists. The main maxims of Teaching English are given below:

1. From Indefinite to Definite

An English teacher should provide the opportunity for a new experiences. Because, in the beginning, there exists an ambiguity, uncertainty and doubtfulness in the concepts of a child he gets the clarity in his conceptions and thoughts when he gets experiences from the society. He verifies his unmatured concepts on the testimony of experience.

2. From Whole to Part

The knowledge of a thing should not be given in part first but it should be given as a whole. The full concept of a thing should understood by the learners and then the knowledge of its parts should be given.

3. From Known to Unknown

The English teacher should proceed his teaching of English language from unknown. He should impart new knowledge of language based on the previous knowledge of the students which is known to them.

4. From Psychological to Logical

The formation of curriculum syllabus, text-books and selection and gradation of language materials teaching techniques and audio-visual-aids should be based on child psychology. The logical base of teaching language comes later on.

5. From Particular to General 

A teacher should proceed his teaching with particular examples and illustrations in the beginning and then he should give general illustration and examples in his teaching.

6. From Real to Unreal 

In teaching-learning process a teacher should use the real object in his teaching in the beginning. After that he may use the unreal of representative objects in later stage.

7. From Empirical to Rational 

First of all our beginners should be introduced with the empirical principles and direct truth. After that the rational thinking should be developed. The rational thinking is a logical thinking or reasoning based on empirical truths and principles testified by experiments.

8. From Simple to Complex 

The teacher of English language should impart the knowledge of simple matter and content first and then difficult matter should be dealt with later on.

9. From Concrete to Abstract 

The abstract thoughts are imaginative, doubtful and difficult to understand for the beginners. Therefore, the learners should be given the knowledge of concrete object because they are familiar with these concrete objects.

10. From Analysis to Synthesis 

In analysis, we divided the topic into so many parts and do the part-wise analysis of the topic of the content. In synthesis, we join the parts into the whole. In analysis, the learner understands part-wise concept in a better way. Analysis is a difficult process to understand.

11. From Inductive to Deductive

There are two teaching techniques to make the English lesson a success

(i) Inductive Technique

(ii) Deductive Technique

Both the techniques are used in the direct method of Teaching English language.

In the Inductive technique of teaching, the learners get themselves associated with the concept revealed and clarified by the English teacher giving practical examples and illustration. We proceed from examples to generalization. When a concept is developed about the knowledge through these examples. We reach to the generalization of the rule of the content.

Therefore, we proceed from examples and illustration to generalization in Inductive technique of teaching. Inductive technique of teaching very useful for the technique of beginners. They do not understand the rules. technique They understand these rules through simple and practical examples and illustrations related to their lives. So this method or approach or is the best one for our beginners to make them understand the language items in an easier way.

Deductive technique of teaching is useful for the senior classes. In Inductive technique, we try to discover new knowledge on our teaching through illustrations, examples and experiments, Whereas, in deductive method, we prove the rules and principles of a particular part of knowledge of the subject by doing experiments and giving examples and illustrations.

We proceed from generalization to examples. It means the teacher tells the generalization of the rule of the content matter first and then he proves the generalized rule by giving examples and illustrations during his teaching language.

Aims of Education in Contemporary Indian Society

Aims of Education in Contemporary Indian Society

Indian education has the following aims at present :

(1) Physical development.

(2) Mental development.

(3) Individual and social development and leadership education.

(4) Development of cultural tolerance. 

(5) Moral and character development.

(6) Vocational development.

(7) Education for democracy and democratic citizenship. 

(8) Population education, environmental education, modernisation of the country, national integration and international understanding, and

(9) Development of religious tolerance.

We shall now present the four aims of education which are democracy, socialism, secularism and national values:

1. Education of Democracy: At one time, there was monarchy in the world. In 1789, a revolution occurred in France against the than prevalent government system and in favour of the demand for freedom, equality and brotherhood. This revolution gave forth a new system of governance called democracy. Generally, by democracy is meant that system in which the administration of the state is run by their elected representatives, and not run by a particular individual. At present, there is so much of variation in the democratic system of different countries that it becomes difficult define it in a uniform statement. However, there also exists a similarity, and that remember the fact that it is based on three principles of freedom, equality and brotherhood the Indian democracy, three more principles have been added which are socialism, secularism and justice. Therefore, Indian democracy can be defined as follows:  Indian democracy is that political system in which the government is run by the people elected by the people, and which is based on the six principles of freedom, equality, brotherhood, socialism, secularism and justice.

Now, the moot point is how should children be educated in democracy For it, it becomes incumbent that right from the beginning, the following should be realized :

(1) The entire environment and working system of the schools should be democratic.

(2) There should be freedom of thought and freedom of expression for children in the schools, though without causing interference to others freedom. 

(3) The individuality of all children should be respected in schools, they should not be discriminated on grounds of caste, religion, economic status or sex all of them should be meted out equal treatment.

(4) There should prevail the spirit of "we' among managers, principals, teachers and other staff members of the schools, they should all behave themselves with others with love, sympathy and cooperation; and all of them should endeavour for the progress of the schools.

(5) Children of all castes, religions and economic statuses should be admitted in the schools; and all of them should be given opportunities for progress and advancement.

(6) Children should not be discriminated on grounds of religion in schools, they should not be forced for education of a particular religion, and religious tolerance should be cultivated in them.

(7) All rules formed in the schools should be founded on the basic spirit of democracy, they should be same for all, and the children should be treated as per these rules.

2. Development of Socialistic Viewpoint: Socailism is one of the six principles of our democracy. In India, socialism has a different connotation. At present, socialism is the democratic system of governance in the country. Our democracy is opposed to any class distinction on grounds of caste, religion and sex etc. It is also opposed to the class distinction between the rich and the poor, however, it does not support any violent struggle for eradication of capitalism. It supports the principle of Sarvodaya as propounded by Gandhiji, and believes in eradication of class distinction through peaceful means. 

Thus Indian socialism is that socialism based on democratic principles and Gandhiji's Sarvodaya philosophy which does not distinguish between individual and individual on grounds of caste, religion and economic status etc., and supports peaceful means to remove economic disparity in place of using power and violent activity.

Now, the moot point is how to achieve this aim of education, and how socialist viewpoint can be cultivated in children. For this, the following become essential:

(1) The entire form of schools should be democratic. 

(2) Individuality of children should be respected in schools.

(3) No discrimination should be practised against children on any grounds of caste, religion, economic status or sex etc., all should be treated equally. 

(4) All children in schools should be provided with equal opportunities for their development.

(5) Students should not be exploited in schools, in any way at any level and under any circumstances.

(6) There should be a specific dress for students in schools.

(7) In schools, at least in primary and upper primary schools, all students should have midday meals together. 

3. Cultivation of Spirit of Secularism:  At present, we have a democratic system of government in our country. Democracy does not discriminate between man and man on grounds of caste, religion, sex etc., in its essence, it is unbiased so far as caste, culture, religion and sex are concerned. However, in order to eradicate the disputes arising in the name of religion, the 42nd Constitutional Amendment in 1976 added the word 'secularism' to the preamble of the Constitution of India in order to further explain the spirit of secularism. Under the Constitution, the Parliament does not have the right to make any particular religion as the state religion, nor can it force any religion on people, nor can it take a religion as the basis for making a national law. This fact has been repeated in several articles of the Constitution in diverse ways. 

Thus Secularism, in Indian context, means that the state will not be based on any religion directly or indirectly, and it will not discriminate people on grounds of religion: people will have freedom to profess and propagate their religions without interfering in other religions. 

The moot point is how this aim of education can be achieved, how the spint of secularism can be inculcated in children. For this, the following become essential :

(1) The schools should not be based on any particular religion; education of any particular religion should not be forced on the students in the schools.

(2) No discrimination should be exercised in schools in the name of religion. 

(3) The Government of India speaks of religion-less education in the name of secularism, yet in our view, the life stories of the chief proponents of the main religions should be included in the language textbooks at the upper primary level, as Mahavir, Buddha, Christ, Muhammad and Swami Dayananda. This will help develop religious tolerance and secularis.

(4) The government prohibits religious education in schools in the name of secularism, yet in our view, there should be a provision for instruction of basic principles of all chief religions of the world, especially those of India, but it should not be forced. This will help develop religious tolerance and secularism. 

(5) The school galleries should be decorated with the proponents of chief religions of the world. This will help cultivate religious tolerance and secularism.

4. Cultivation of National Values: By value is meant utility, desirability. importance. Generally, the ideals and principles that are accepted in a society are called the values of that society. However, in reality, the sense of value is somewhat different from this. We are aware that each society has its own culture as well as its own beliefs, ideals, principles, moral laws and behaviour norms, and people of the society attach importance to them according to their likes and dislikes, and they determine their behaviour on the basis of these. Thus, the beliefs, ideals, moral laws and behaviour norms are not values by themselves, rather when people of a society start to attach importance to them, and behave themselves according to them, they become the values of the society. 

In other words : The beliefs, ideals, principles, moral laws and behaviour norms of any society which are attached importance by the people and by which their behaviour is directed and controlled, are the values of that society and/or its people.

Now let us consider national values in place of social values. At present, we have the democratic system of government, and it is based on six basic principles: freedom, equality, fraternity, socialism, secularism and justice. Our nation believes in these principles, and determines its behaviour on the basis of these principles, and each individual of the nation is expected to behave himself on the bases of these principles.

The basic principles of the nation: freedom, equality, fraternity, socialism, secularism and justice by which the behaviour of the citizens is guided and controlled are our national values.

This signifies the following :

(1) Children should be given freedom to think and express themselves in schools. 

(2) All children should be considered equal in the schools, they should be treated equally. 

(3) All children should be treated with love, sympathy and cooperation in school attachment should be displayed for all. 

(4) In schools, children should not be discriminated on the basis of caste, religion economic status, sex etc., and they should be respected and treated equally 

(5) There should be a uniform dress and rules for all children in schools, and should be mandatory for all to abide by them. 

(6) No religious education should be imparted in schools by force.

(7) When children start to behave themselves according to national value knowingly or unknowingly, they should be given clear knowledge of nation values and the same should be linked with their sentiments, and they should be trained to determine and display their behaviour on the bases of these value This work can be undertaken at the secondary level; it is the time when children possess logic and power to distinguish between right and wrong.

Meaning, Definition and Need of Definite Aims of Education, Main Aims of Education

Aims of Education in Contemporary Indian Society

Meaning and Definition of Aims of Education

Man is a progressive being. He wants to advance and rise at all times. Whatever he wants to achieve in his life, its ideal condition is called the aim. This ideal condition a cannot be defined in limits. Aim indicates an ideal condition which cannot be limited to It has the same meaning in the field of education, it indicates towards a higher direction o that is, such an ideal situations which cannot be limited. We can define it as follows :

An aim of education is such a statement which indicates an ideal condition of desirable change, such an ideal condition which cannot be bound in limits. 

Distinction between Aims and Objectives

Though aim and objective are synonym, but they are related with each other c as whole and part. An aim indicates an ideal condition, such ideal condition which o cannot be bound in limits. On the contrary, an objective has specified limit, it is achievable in itself. Generally, several objectives are determined for the achievement of an aim, and these objectives are realized for the achievement of that aim. 

Need of Definite Aims of Education

Education is a social process that goes on lifelong. By it a society acquaints its members by its previously acquired civilization and culture and enables them to effect continuous development in their civilization and culture. If the society has not a clear picture before itself what it has to teach to its next generation and what it has not to teach, its education cannot be run properly. The provision of formal education is done for the achievement of specified aims. In the absence of specified and clear aims this education cannot be imagined. Aimless education is meaningless in itself. The need of definite aims of education is evident from the following factors:

1. Provision of Formal Education 

2. Provision of Curriculum and Teaching Methods

3. Operation of Education Properly

4. Enthusiasm in Vigour

5. Utilization of Time and Energy

Main Aims of Education

The real fact is that there are no aims of education in itself, the aims of a society are the aims of education too. Because the aims of different societies are different, so the aims of their education too are different. Not only this, but they continue to change with the time and place. It is obvious that they cannot be limited. So, they cannot be analysed separately. Of course, they can be put in certain general classes We have attempted to classify the aims of education of any society or country under the nine headings, and have also endeavoured to analyse the changes that occur in them due to change in time and place

[I] Physical Development 

Physical development is the universal and perennial aim of education. It is another thing that it has been accepted in different forms in different societies at different times. For example, materialistic societies consider the body as an end, they believe that healthy body is the first pleasure. On the contrary, spiritualistic societies consider the body as a means; they believe that the healthy body is the means for higher meditation and self-realization.

At present in the field of education, by physical development of the children is meant strengthening the muscles and different organs of the body of the children, development and training of their organs of action and perception and development and sublimation of their instincts. For it, asanas, exercises and sports are arranged, they are given the opportunities or the use of their sense organs, they are taught the methods to keep away to diseases, and they are made aware for proper diagnosis and treatment in case of becoming ill.

[II] Mental Development

This is also a universal and perennial aim of education, but it has been taken in different forms by different people. In ancient India, by mental development was meant enhancement of knowledge. There was a time when the slogan of 'knowledge for knowledge' was given in our country. The similar tale can be seen in other countries too In the present times, the educationists who believe in faculty psychology take mental development as the development of these faculties such as memory, observation, imagination and reasoning of the children. Some scholars consider the development of reasoning as mental development while some others include intellectual development in it. Intellect is the power of taking decision of true and false by reasoning on the basis of clear knowledge and experience. It has given forth the slogan of education For mental and intellectual development.

In present times, by mental development in the field of education is meant the knowledge of language for communication of ideas, knowledge of different subjects for the knowledge of material and spiritual world, development of mental faculties, such as- memory, observation, imagination, logic, thinking, meditation, generalization and decision-taking, etc., training in distinguishing truth and untruth on the basis of reasoning, development of their faculty of logic, and to protect them from mental illnesses (fear, pessimism, complexes, etc.) and to produce in them mental stimulators (fearlessness, optimism and self-confidence, etc.). And for this all, children are given opportunities for free expression. By it, the communication of thoughts and language development take place simultaneously. The knowledge of different subjects and training in different activities are helpful in the intellectual development of the children. In present times, the children are given opportunities for learning by doing. It brings about the development of their mental powers, such as- memory, observation, imagination and logic, etc. The children are behaved with love and sympathy, so they are protected from fear, they become fearless, they are protected from pessimism, they become optimists, they are protected from complexes, they become self-confident.

[III] Social Development

Man is a social being. The psychologists have found out that he has the instinct of gregariousnes which inspires him to live in group. In group, sometimes he loves others and sometimes hates them, sometimes he shows sympathy towards others, and sometimes enmity; and sometimes he cooperates with others and sometimes he does not. Generally people term the development of feelings of love, sympathy cooperation as social development. The sociologists have explained that each person learns the language, living style, customs and conduct of his society to adjust in the society. Some people call the training in these activities as social development, but in the terminology or sociology it is socialization. Moreover, if a person would have only adjusted in his society, he would have not achieved this development. He has all the power to understand the good and evil of his society, and he tries to accept the good and to do away with the evil, and in sociological terminology, it is call social change.  All these are included in the periphery of social development.

It is very essential to bring about social development of the children. Without social development the children can neither adjust in their society, nor can bring about, social change. The social development of persons is also necessary in order to accept the social changes.

However, only bringing about social development of the children does not exhaust the functions of education. It will have to effect all types of physical, mental cultural, moral, character, vocational and spiritual development of children.

[IV] Cultural Development

Generally, whatever the members of a society have thought, understood and done good is called the culture of that society. Sociologists call all physical or material achievements as material culture and ideological achievements as non-material culture.

In our view by the culture of a society is meant that specific living style, eating habits, customs, art, skill, music, dance, Language, literature, religion and philosophy in which it has faith and all its members consider their culture as the supreme and conduct themselves according to it, and thus the culture of a society is preserved. Besides, the intellectual people of each society experience new things, they understand the reality of their experiences by their reasoning power and when it is felt necessary, they negate the untruth and propound new truths. Thus, development in a society's culture takes place However, it has been seen that any culture does not leave its original or fundamental form, it is its greatest feature.

Each society has its own culture and it transmits it to the next generation. It is a universal and perennial fact. So it is but natural for any society to have the cultural development of its children as one of the aim of education.

[V] Moral and Character Development

Moral and character development is the chief aim of education. Every society has its certain principles and rules of conduct. Morality and character are inseparable. One cannot be thought of in the absence of another. However, in different disciplines, morality and character have been analysed differently. The humanists consider conduct as favourable to society in the form of  morality and character. Psychologists accept the group of good habits and firm will power as character. Spiritualists consider self-refrain and conduct favourable to religion as morality and character. Literature takes abidance by the social rules as morality and character. Those who do not abide by morality have their own character. A robber has his own unique character, it is another thing whether it is good or bad.

In the field of education, when we speak of moral and character development we mean that the society takes its children forward to the abidance by conduct rule with firm will power. And conduct depends on the geographical situation, philosophical ideology, social structure, political system, economic system, scientific progress and material and spiritual achievements. In religious societies, religion is the basis o morality. And because most of the people in the world adhere to one or the other religion, their conduct is based on their respective religions, so generally people d not distinguish between religion and morality. In our view too, morality based o religion is the true morality; but there is certain degree of helplessness in our country There are several religions and communities in our country. We cannot impart the education of morality as based on any one specific religion

[VI] Vocational Development

The vocational aim of education is meant to train the children, according to their interests, aptitudes, abilities and needs, in certain production works, such as Deming, or in certain professions such as-shopkeeping, teaching, law and medicine practice, or in certain small industry, such as weaving, spinning, carpentry, ironsmithery, leather work, or providing them technological, management and administration education for running the heavy industries.

Vocational aim of education is an important aim of education. The most basic needs of man include bread, cloth and shelter. Education should fulfill our basic needs. The development of art, literature and music also requires money. In the present times, there is no limit to the physical needs and as such, we need much money. We can get this money by production or industry. If we educate the children in production or industry, then they will take its benefit, and it will certainly eradicate unemployment and poverty, and our country will become prosperous. 

[VII] Education of Political System and Citizenship

In the field of education, by the education of political system is meant to acquaint the people with the qualities of the political system of the country. But the knowledge of a political system has no meaning until the citizens have loyalty towards it and conduct themselves according to it. The rights and duties of the citizens in: country's political system are definite. The education of citizenship aims at inspiring the citizens to acquaint themselves with their rights and duties and to conduct themselves accordingly. 

In the present times, it is a compulsory aim of education in all the countries of the world. By it a nation develops its citizens according to its beliefs and acquaint them with their rights and duties and encourages them to conduct themselves accordingly. It makes the citizens aware of their duties towards the country, and the become active for its progress. For the development of national integration, the education of political system and citizenship is essential.

[VIII] Realization of the Needs and Aspirations of the Nation

There are so many countries in the world, and each of them has numerous small and large societies. These countries have their specific needs. Besides, they have their own aspirations, and these needs and aspirations keep changing. For example. class difference is increasing in our society, and we aspire that our society becomes a classless society, and our country is backward and we have the aspiration to make it advanced, and for these, we are taking the help of education. 

In the field of education, by realization of national needs and aspirations is meant the arrangement of such education by which needs and aspirations of the country are realized. 

Education is the fundamental means of human development. So it is necessary that it should prepare citizens and society for the solution of prevalent problems and fulfillment of aspirations of the individual and society, and it should be its contemporary aim.

 [IX] Spiritual Development

This is the supreme aim of education. It is another thing that there is no provision for it in the education controlled by state, and if it exists in some states, it is in the form of education of a particular religion. Most of the people of the world consider man as the sum total of body, mind and soul. The development of body and mind are the two foremost aims of education. Besides, man is a social being too. So they also talk about his social, cultural, moral and character development. Man has certain physical, mental and social needs for the realization of which all of us think of vocational development. However, spiritual development has been left out between, we fail to understand why.

By spiritual development in the field of education is meant that man has to be acquainted with the reality of the whole universe, he has to be acquainted with his self-power and he has to be acquainted with the abstract omnipotent existence.