Linguistic Principles or Characteristics of a Language or General Principles of Foreign Language Teaching, Role and Functions of a Language

Utkarsh Education

 

Linguistic Principles 

or

 Characteristics of a Language

 or

 General Principles of Foreign Language Teaching

In India English is taught both as a second language and as a foreign language. The term 'second language' is used because it has become a lingua franca between speakers of widely diverse languages. It is essential for English teacher to teach in such a manner that desired goals can be achieved. Therefore, a sound knowledge of the principles of teaching English language is needed. Since, there principles are fruitful for all foreign language teaching. They are faptly called as general principles of foreign language teaching. These principles can also determine the nature and scope of language and so they can also be studied as the characteristics of language.

1. Language is learnt.

2. Language is a system.

3. Language is a system of systems. 

4. Language is vocal and verbal.

5. Symbols of language are arbitrary.

6. Language is unique.

7. Language is a means of communication.

8. Language is related to culture or language and society,

9. Language is ever changing.

10. Language has its own grammar.

11. Language has its sentence structures.

12. Language has some specific rules.

13. Language has its own vocabulary and terminology.

14. Language involves some actions (non-verbal signs and gesture). 

Role and Functions of a Language

Language plays an important role in human life. The hard fact is that human life has been made better by the use of a language. Language is a means of expression. It helps us in the process of communication. The human life would have been quite different. Language plays some important functions which are briefly explained as follows:

1. Expressive Functions: Every person has some feelings emotions, ideas and he/she wants to give an outlet in those experiences of life. By using a language, he is able to express his views. Thus language helps in the process of expression between the two individuals. Language develops mutual under standing. This activity of expressing oneself helps a lot in balancing the proper grown and development of the personality of an individual. Just giving an outlet to our pent-up feelings, emotions, ideas and thoughts, it helps an individual in a number of ways. By expressing himself in different ways, A person can become a good orator, a good poet and a writer. The way he/she can arouse the feelings of others, benefit others also.

2. Aesthetic Function: Language is a means to store cultural experiences in the form of literature and other written records for the posterity. There cultural experiences form the nexus of individual's realisation. It breaths life into our poets and dramatists. In the absence of language, such fine arts were not possible Language has its aesthetic aspect in other way also. Sometimes we have feelings or experiences of life, but we either do not express or are unable express due to one or other reason. Later those experiences are expressed by someone else who may be author or poet and then this expression gives us a lot of satisfaction. Certainly it helps in the proper growth and development of the individual.

3. Informative Functions: Language helps to an individual in giving information to others. Suppose a person has some important information in his mind and that he wants to pass on the others. It will be possible only if he is able to express himself and inform others. Only language helps in giving the information or message.

Sometimes, the teacher in the classroom situation plays the role of information given only. He will be able to do so only with the help of a language otherwise he fails to do his duty properly. Language has, thus, an informative function.

4. Directive Function: Language also helps in giving directions to others. Through a language any type of direction to proceed or not to proceed can be given to the police standing at crossing shows 'red light' to the traffic. It is not just communication of information. He is rather directing the whole traffic to stop all movement.

In the examination hall, the superintendent uses a language and gives directions to the candidates sitting there and draws the attention of all to follow certain rules and regulations. By using a language, he is able to give directions Thus, we find, that language has directive functions also.

5. Interactive Function: Language is not the one way communication. It has both way communication. The radio and television are the media of one way communication while telephone has both ways communication. In classroom teaching, interaction between teacher and students takes place with the help of verbal and non-verbal language. The question answer method is used to that interaction may occur in the classroom. Teaching is known as interactive process that is face-to-face encounters between teacher and students.

It is an important function of language. The interactive process is the means of development. The classroom interaction helps in the students' and teachers development. The seminars, conferences and group discussions are organised for interacting in group on certain issue or problem. The exchange of views and ideas are made through interaction.

6. Communicative Function: Language is the means or medium for sending informations, ideas, feelings to others. It provides expression to our thoughts feelings needs, opinions and other abstract things. It helps to communicate them to other persons in oral or written forms. Daily newspaper communicate events and development in written forms. The radio and television Prews items also communicate the news in speech form. Some code language is also used in the communicating message during war 

7. Evolutionary Function: The advancement of a country depends on its economic, social and technological development and the evolution of the country is governed by its national language. A rich language of a country contributes directly in the national development. English, being an international language. is also known as the window to the world. Its rich and advanced literature has contributed in the evolution of English society. The evolution of man and society is related to language geographical conditions have also influenced the language significantly, such as formation of letters, pronunciation or phonemes.

8. Function of Skill development: Teaching of English language also involves the development of some skills such as-Teaching of correct pronunciation, teaching of correct spellings of words, teaching of English grammar, idioms and figures of speech, teaching of metres of English poetry, teaching of Allumous to English mythology and introduction to the English literature. Thus English language helps to improve skill development among teachers.

9. Preservative Functions: Learning language is the God given gift or boon for human beings as man also uses language for inter-action and communication. During his life time; a man gains much knowledge and experience from daily life which can be preserved only in written form. Thus, acquired knowledge and experience and formed edifies of human knowledge which is available in written language.

The introduction of media and technology also have helped in preserving the ideas, views and artistic ability in original forms. The video recording, films, display in original language, speech pronunciation, style of language. We can enjoy the songs of poet and thoughts of great scholars even after their death. Thus, the language has the most important function in preserving the knowledge, ideas, feelings, views in original forms.

The Origin and Development of English Language, Main theories of Language

Utkarsh Education

 

Origin and Development of English Language

However, nothing can be said authentically about the origin of language, although there are several theories, which have been expanded in support of its origin, but these theories are based on speculation and surmises. It can be said that a language is recognized when it becomes a forceful medium of expression or communication of feelings as well as emotions. If we have a glance over the development of English language, we notice a gradual development and enrichment by the valuable contribution and impact of other languages and their literature.

English language did not occupy reputed place in antiguity rather it was neglected and looked down by the then upper class society. As a matter of fact, English was spoken by rustics and lower class of society. When Germanic and Franco Latin literature was furnished, English also became rich language and literature.

Firstly Anglo Saxon literature contributed English and secondly, the literature imparted from France by the Normans, helped in its development. Anglo Saxon literature was cultivated by the Teutonic tribes, which invaded Britain at the end of the Vth century. This literature in the outcome of the work of clerks during the period from VIIth to XIth century. In the Latin literature of the age, some renowned persons like Aldhelm (640-709), Prede (673-735), Mark of Jarrow and Aluim (735-804) wrote in Latin and composed some English views and songs in English. First creation of the erudities of language is poetry. The most pre-dominant and notable characteristics of the Germanic language, spoken by Anglo Saxon are consonants. But this is not the strict rule to use this metre, but the alteration may be formed by vowels also.

Further old English possessed the facility of forming compound words. These compound words display the original sense by their elements which form then; e.g.. geal-adi (gall disease) is jaundice. Lic-song (the corpse song) is a dirgelie tun (the town of corpses) is the cemetery etc. Then, the use of compound words was common to both poetry and prose, but independent English language and its literature has yet not come in existence. Poeta used such words for ornamen to bring emphasis or effect.

Thus, up to 9th century. English poetry or prose had no identification literature. Towards the middle of Xth century a remarkable advancement w made in English culture by the re-establishment of the Benedictive Monaster One of the pupils of this school, at Winchester Alfric cultivated more refine prose, which was more musical and poetic. So, on the whole, Anglo Saxon pro is much nearer to modern prose.

Gradually the Anglo Saxon vocabulary was being transferred by the disappearance of its poetic terms and new words went on making their place in the language. These new words were supplied by the Normans. Besides the Anglo Saxon words became modified in form and pronunciation and change resulted in the form of shortened words. Thus, Anglo Saxon became gradually modified into modern English with its simple grammar.

Thus, we can see, that the history of English language is usually described as covering three stages-Old English up to about 1150, Middle English upto about 1500 and then Modern English. The gap between modern language and the old English is now so great that old English has to be studied as if it were foreign language. 

1. Old English (Early Period of English Language) upto about 1150

The origin of English can be traced further back, beyond the dialects of the early Germanic settlers, to the West Germanic languages spoken by tribes in North-West Germany around the beginning of the Christian Era. These Wes German languages are in turn part of a wider Germanic group, which include the Scandinavian languages. All of these form a branch of the Indo-European family of languages, spoken from Northern India to the Atlantic coast of Europe. Due to kinship among all these languages Persian, Hindi, Spanish, Galtic and English alike and others lies in the many words (in different forms) that they have in common, e.g., we find words equivalent to snow, birch, wolf, honey ant beech. The only difference between Germanic languages from the other Indo European tongues is that verbs can be grouped into two classes, called 'weak and 'strong, according to the form of their past tense.

The various Anglo Saxon tribes in England has different dialects. Of these, West Saxon is the most important today. The Latin alphabet was widely all over Europe. The core of our modern English vocabulary, is of old English stock. There was difference in the grammar and inflections, the ending of words show their relationships with other words. Old English showed these relationships by of inflections that indicated grammatical classifications. Thus, old English was by no means as adjudged from the modern standards. As relationships between words were indicated by inflection, there was no crucial need for related words to be positioned next to each other. This complex use of inflections was breaking down throughout the old English period but it was so well established that the changes began to appear late in the written English. On account of Scandinavian influence on spoken English between IXth and XIth centuries. Many Scandinavian words come readily into English and contributed to the dialects of Northern and Eastern England eg.. cracked, bath, skill, husband and Thursday. 

2. Middle English Period (1150 to 1500)

English came back into general literary use in the 14th Century, by this time, the writing habits that had been ingrained in old English were quite forgotten. Writers now adopted many French conventions, using qu-in words like queen or queak, instead of the old English. The French symbols-ou- and -ow-were used to represent the /-00 sound that in old English had been written -U (hus "a house"). Changes in pronunciation were already taking place in. Later old English, continued rapidly and new spellings were adopted to represent the new sounds, e.g., old English spellings such as stan and ham (for a stone' and 'a home') now became stone and home. Besides this, French words too began to appear in English writing. Geoffrey Chaucer, a fairly representative user of Middle English, used a high proportion of French words in his poetry. He compared a long descriptive poem, "The Canterbury Tales'. In this poem he chose thirty pilgrims and drew a portrait of each one. These portraits (prologue) display his skill of human and irony and so he is known as Father of English poetry. By about 1400, the year of Chaucer's death, more than half of English vocabulary consisted of French imports. Thus, the most obvious change in middle English was the loss of old inflected endings. Chaucer's English is much more intelligible to the modern readers.

3. Modern English Period (Early Renaissance and Afterwards)

Between Old and Middle English period, grammatical and vocabulary changes were most dramatic but between Middle and Modern English, it was pronunciation changes, that marked the transition most strongly. After Chaucer's time, the Vowel sounds, particularly long Vowels underwent a process of modification and it has become known as the Great Vowel shift. English language gradually but slowly achieved its proper place during 15th and 16th centuries. English became the language of cultured society and covered for flung area on the globe. Thomas Wyatt (1503) and Surrey (1517) are the most important names who served English Literature. The literary works of Philip Sidney (1554) appeared between the years 1518 and 1582, but were published after his death. Edmund Spender felt that the purity of the language could be preserved only by reviving old words and using words from dialect. Thus, Renaissance or Elizabethan period was full of great poets, dramatists and essayists. This period is rich in all its manifestation. Shakespeare, Spencer and Bacon are the shining stars of this period. English achieved its highest position and glory during this period.

The major movement in language was the attempt to establish rules of correctness in the 17th Century, now the first time, dictionaries defining the meanings of words were published and Dr. Samuel Johnson in 1755 contributed in this field. Throughout the 19th and 20th Centuries, the debates about standards of correctness and acceptability to be debated and during the first of the 20th Century under the influence of radio, there was a strong move towards a prescribed standard.

THE ORIGIN OF LANGUAGE

Diverse views are available with regarding the origin of formal language. Some points are as follows:

(1) The 'Divine Gift' Theory: 

According to Indian philosophy, language is the divine gift of God. The Vedas are eternal and therefore, words are eternal since they are gift of God. In Bhagvad Gita Lord Krishna says, "I am the sacred 'OM' in all the Vedas." According to this view 'OM' which is a combination of A+U+M is the root of all the sounds and it represents the union of the three Gods-Brahma, Vishnu and Mahesh.

(2) Onomatopoeic Theory: 

Onomatopoeia is a world which resembles the object associated with it. According to this view, the first form of language resembled the cries of animals full of joy, pain or terror and the chattering of leaves and branches of and noises of the served as source of inspiration to the primitive man to express himself through speech. He imitated the voices of animals and birds. We can call it imitation theory also. This is also known as "bow-wow' theory which assumed that some birds and animals were named after the sounds that they produced. According to Thompson" "This mimicry of animals was generalized to other objects and events in nature e.g., the 'rumbling' of thunder, the 'scraping' of metal on rock, and the 'gurgling' of water.

In due course of time man invented other sounds for naming other objects in his sorroundings.

(3) The 'Ding-Dong' Theory: 

This theory assumes that there is an inherent quality in certain objects to force the man to elicit certain sounds resembling the sounds of those objects. For example the sound 'ding-dong' is associated with the ringing of the bell. According to this theory sound and sense are closely related and everything when struck gives a peculiar sound and a corresponding sense to the listener.

(4) The 'Pooh-Pooh' Theory: 

This theory holds that the interjections or exclamations of man during his different emotional states e.g., pleasure, pain, anger and surprise, formed the basis for the origin of language.

(5) The 'Babble-Luck' Theory: 

This theory assumes that language is the result of prattling of man while he worked. It was through chance factors that babbling or murmuring of man became to be associated with particular objects and it resulted in the origin of a private language for the personal use of a par ticular man. In due course of time, these private worlds became common for use to all.

(6) The 'Tongue-Tied' Theory: 

According to this thoery, the tongue of a human being is co-ordinated with the body by subtle bonds of imitative relationship. What our body organs do, are readily picked up by our speech organ-the tongue. In other words, our actions of the hands, arms, legs and other organs of the body are tongue-tied.

(7) The Yo- He- Ho - Theory

The propounder of this theory was Novie. This theory assumes that due to muscular exertion, a person produces a sound which gives relief to his system. During this process, the vocal chord vibrates in =different ways. For example, in a game of 'tug of war', the players produce sounds like 'hayi-sha' or an athlete running fast breathes short to regain his breath. Therefore, such sounds are produced to balance the body mechanism.

(8) The Sing Song Theory

This theory was propounded by Prof. Hedson. According to this theory, the source of speech is not gloomy seriousness but mere play and youthful hilarity. As such, the origin of speech can be traced to merry-making, sports, hunting, singing etc.

(9) The Ta-Ta Theory

Louis H. Gray was the originator of this theory. He explained that certain sound produces by the vocal chord is associated unconsciously with a particular kind of gesture. For example, child imitates his parents to produce sound like 'tata' while moving his hand. This action is performed to express his emotion of pleasure when he goes out of the house.

(10) The Contact Theory

This theory states that human beings utter sounds to fulfill his basic needs like hunger, thirst, sex, etc. In many ways, he can contact for communication with his fellow members. For example, when a child is born, the first sound he produces is of discomfort i.e. he cries. This draws the attention of mother or attendant to fulfill his needs. This in turn provides him the security of his mother's womb. Later, he starts associating certain sound to particular activity. 

Conclusion:

Modern theorists hold the view that speech is simply not the manipulation of physical organs. Therefore, it is important to learn about the psychological development of early man. Basically, language evolved with the human need to communicate. It developed in a social situation to convey message among the members of his group.

Language: its Meaning, Definitions, Characteristics & Nature

Utkarsh Education

Language  

Introduction

Aristotle has called man a social animal. As such, he needs to communicate his feelings and thoughts. It is only through language that he can communicate with his fellow-beings. Thus, language is a unique possession of man. It shows his superiority over other animals. Language is the greatest gift with which man is endowed. One cannot think of human society without language. Even Bloomfield has remarked, "Each community is formed by the activity of language."

According to Gleason, "Language is one of the most important and characteristic forms of human behaviour." It is only through language that we are able to think, feel and express ourselves. Hence, language is the flesh and blood of our culture. 

Meaning and Definition of Language

The word 'language' has been derived from the Latin word 'lingua' which implies 'tongue.' French word 'langue' and 'parole' is also related to language. 'Langue' is a specific form of speech which  is conventional and belongs to a particular community. For example, in India we have languages like Punjabi, Bengali, Rajasthani etc. "Parole', also means speech but it denotes the 'individual' side of language i.e. how a person expresses his feelings, emotions and desires while living in a society. 

Educationists have given various definitions of language which are given below:

"Language is the expression of ideas by means of which speech sounds are combined into words, words are combined into sentences and combination of sentences gives answer to ideas and thoughts."   -Sweet

"Language is a set of arbitrary vocal symbols by means of which a social group communicates." -Bloch and Trager

"Language is the set of human habits, the purpose of which is to give expression to human thoughts and feelings especially to impart them to others." -Jesperson

"Language is a purely human and non-instinctive method of communication, ideas, emotions and desires by means of a system of voluntary produced symbols." -Edward Sapir

Characteristics of Language

1. Language is a means or vehicle ti communicate ideas, thoughts, feelings, experiences and emotions

2. Language is a verbal communication or verbal interaction of thoughts and ideas among the members of the society. 

3. Some signs, cries, language, smile and body gestures are also used for communicating something. It is known as non-verbal language o body language, or non-verbal interaction. The verbal interaction take place with the help of a verbal language.

4. Language is the God-given gift or boon for human being on other animals and species can use a language. Man alone uses language, for communication. 

5. Language is signally system which employs vocal sounds and is based on man's abilities and skill to speak.  

6. Language is speech which in turn means the production of meaningful sound according to a system. It is an introduction to the study of speech

7. Language is the system of systems which includes phonemes morphemes, semantics and syntax. 

8. Language is a powerful instrument or tool which has made human civilization and culture.

9. Language is a uniquely human trait, shared by the cultures so divers and by individuals physically and mentally so unlike one another. 

10. Language is purely human and non-instinctive method of conveying c communicating, ideas, feelings, emotions, and desires by means of system of voluntarily produced symbols or alphabets or words. 

11. Language is a social and cultural not a biologically inherited function The skills of a language are reading, writing, speaking and listening are acquired.

12. Language is a highly structured system, which permits an infinite range of permutation.

Nature of Language

The nature of language is based on certain linguistics principles which are given below :-

1. Language is a system.

2. The system of language is arbitrary. 

3. Language is a system of symbols. 

4. The symbols of language are vocal.

5. Language is learned.

6. Language is for communication.

7. Language is related to the culture in which it exists.  

8. Language is made up of habits.

9. Language is social behaviour. 

10. Language is unique.

11. language changes. 

1. Language is a system

Language is a system like that of the human body. The system of the body functions through various organs such as the heart, the lungs etc. The system of language functions through three constituents, eg, the sounds. the structures and the words. There cannot be any utterance without 

2. The system of language is arbitrary

There is no relationship between a particular symbol and the object denoted by it. For example, why do we call a particular object 'tree' or another object 'stone'? There is no relationship between the syrnol 'tree' and the object denoted by it. The same is true in the case of 'stone' or other items of vocabulary. It is a matter of convention. Once the convention is set, it is not for the individual to break it.

The same is true of question and answer forms. Why is it that "Is this a tree?" is a question, and "This is a tree," a statement. It is also a matter of convention. 

3. Language is a system of symbols

Symbols are representations of things rather than the things themselves. The word 'boy' is not a 'boy'. The stands for a 'boy'. Language functions best only when the symbols are known to the speaker and the listener, the writer and the reader.

4. The symbols of language are vocal

Language uses vocal symbols which are made up of speech sounds. These sounds are produced by human beings through various movements of the vocal organs.

5. Language is learned

Language is a learned activity. It does not come automatically, as walking does. The child is not born with the skill of speaking. He has to acquire it after he is born. If a child were to be isolated from society or brought up in the company of deaf people, he would their mother tongue. Since language is a learned activity, we have to teach it and theach it property 

6. Language is for communication

The chief purpose of language is communication. We use language to inform others, to ask them to do certain things or to express our feeling or emotions. For this purpose it is important that we acquire the rights of promociation which is intelligible to others. should, therefor pay attention to correct speech on the part of students.

7. Language is related to the culture in which it exists

A language is the product of a particular society and culture. It has meaning only in relation to that society and culture. The Eskimos, for example, have so many different wards in their language for 'snow. It is because "snow" plays an important part in their lives. But other speakers do not have that number of words for snow. In England to ask a person his salary is considered illmannered, but it is not so in India. The way of greeting, saying thanks etc. are different in different countries. It is because of cultural differences.

While learning a foreign language, a person does not only learn that langugae but he also gets acquainted with the culture of the people whose language he is learning. The culture aim of teaching a language cannot be ignored.

8. Language is made up of habits

According to Jesperson, "Language is a set of human habits, the purpose of which is to give expression to thoughts and feelings." The system of language is to be mastered at the habit level. When a person speaks his other tongue, he does not consider the position of the various speech organs while making the meaningful noises. Nor does he think of the ways in which he putting various words to form sentences. It is because speaking has become a matter of habit with him. No person can be said to have learnt a language unless he masters it at the habit level.

The implication of this principle is that the students should be provided intensive practice in the use of language. The teacher should provide opportunities to the students to use the language. 

9. Language is social behaviour

The features of language are not inherited in the biological sense, that is, heredity does not predispose a person to learn one language more easily than another. Language is social behaviour. A child picks up the language of his environment. If a child born in Tamil Nadu, is brought up in London, he will pick up English, but if he is taken away to Maseow, he will learn Russian.

10. Language is unique 

Each language is unique. No two language have the same sound, grammatical or lexical systems. All language differ in these respects. So fresh efforts have to be made to learn a language.

11. Language changes

Language is not static. A living language, like human beings changes. If we study the history of any language, we shall notice the numerous changes that have taken place in it over the years.

Changes take place in all aspects of language. This is more so in the case of vocabulary. Words come and go. They are born and die. Words are invented according to need. We have noticed that thousands of words have been added to Indian language after Independence. English too has borrowed words from various languages. Besides this, words change their meaning from time to time. The word sad once meant 'full to the brim', 'well fed'. Then it meant 'solid'. Later on, it was appled to a person who was reliable and firm. Then it got its present meaning.

Curriculum - Meaning, Definitions, Nature and Characteristics.

Utkarsh Education

Meaning of Curriculum

1. Etymological Meaning of Curriculum: 

The term 'curriculum' has originated from the Latin word 'currere' meaning "race course". In its etymological sense, we can say that it is the course which a person has to run across to arrive at the destination. From this viewpoint, education becomes a race which is run on the course of curriculum, and by which the aim of personality development of a child is achieved.

2. Narrow Meaning of Curriculum: 

In its narrow sense, the term 'curriculum' is considered synonym of 'course of study' or syllabus, which limits the facts of some subjects. Thus, in its narrow sense, curriculum is limited to only bookish knowledge. There is no place in it for a child's needs, interests, attitudes, aptitude, abilities and activities pertaining to practical life. In brief, we can say that in its narrow sense, by curriculum is meant that course in which only bookish knowledge is provided to students.

3. Wider Meaning of Curriculum: 

In its wide sense, the term 'curriculum' comprises of all those experiences which a child receives in and out of classroom for his all-round development keeping in with his needs. interests, aptitudes, attitudes and abilities, through different activities such as studies, games and co-curricular activities. 

According to Munroe, curriculum comprises of all those educational experiences which are obtained for the realization of educational aims.

According to Bent and Kroneberg, curriculum is the systematic form of contents of studies which is prepared for meeting the needs of students.

In brief we can say that by curriculum is meant all those experiences and activities organised for students which are helpful for their and the society's all-round development

Definitions of Curriculum

1. "It (curriculum) is a tool in the hands of the artist (teacher) to mould his material (pupil) according to his ideal (objective) in his studio (school)." Cunningham

2. "Curriculum should be conceived as an epitome of the whole of knowledge and experience of the human race." -Froebel 

3. "Curriculum, in its broader sense, includes the complete school environment, involving all the course, activities, reading and associations furnished to the pupils in the school." -Rudyard K. Bent and Henry H. Kroneberg 

4. "Curriculum embodies all the experiences which are offered to learner under spices or direction of the school." -R. Dall 

5. "Subject matter of learning or curriculum is identical with all the objects, ideals and principles which enter as resources obstacles into the continuous intentional pursuit at a course of action." -John Dewey

6. "The curriculum is the sum total of the activities that go on in the environment." -Anon

7. "Curriculum does not mean the academic subject taught in the school but it includes total experience that a child receives at a school." -The Secondary Education Commission

Nature of Curriculum

(1) The Curriculum is Continuously Evolving:  To be viable and effective, the curricular programme must have continuous evaluation and reappraisal. A programme must adopt its educational activities and services to meet the needs of a modern and dynamic community.

(2) The Curriculum is Based on the Needs of the People: It is imperative in developing a programme to begin with those that concern the people themselves. Their years of experience can be a good source that can be woven into the fabric of the class-room presentation.

(3) The Curriculum is Democratically Conceived: The minds and energies of many people who are in intimate contact with the interests, needs and resources of the community will create a more effective product than the individual director could possibly provide by working alone.

(4) The Curriculum is the Result of Long-term Effort: Enthusiasm for a prosed curriculum activity often impels proponents to push for immediate action. But a class or service that is begun hurriedly and folds quickly may hurt the long-term continuance of the programme.

(5) The Curriculum is a Complex Details:  A friendly social meeting, good-student teacher relationships, effective guidance opportunities, and favourable attitude on the part of individuals groups, and organizations within the community are necessary ingredients for a successful programme.

(6) The Curriculum Provides for Logical Sequence of Subject Matter: Classes and activities should be planned so as to achieve an orderly development of subject matter and step-by-step progress of the learner.

(7) The Curriculum Complements and Cooperates with other programmes in the Community: The public school should not try to monopolize the education scene at the community level. Its major concern should be to see that the jobs get done regardless of who does it. 

(8) The Curriculum has Educational Quality:  Curriculum must be made up of offerings that pass the test of good and sound education. We speak of quality education but there has to be quality curriculum as well. as Flexibility is a good trait of good curriculum. A curriculum must be ready to incorporate changes whenever necessary.

(9) The Curriculum has Administrative Flexibility:  A good curriculum must be ready to incorporate changes whenever necessary. The curriculum is open to revision and development to meet the demands of globalization and the digital age.

(10) Conducive to all Learning Styles:  A good curriculum want leave anyone out. In any given class-room there will be representation of several learning styles. Depending on the child, he or her favourable learning style may be Auditory (Learns best by Listening), Kinesthetic (Learns best through hand-on-activities), or Visual (Learns best through sight). Because every child is different, a great curriculum takes every child into account and gives opportunities for each one to connect with the lesson through his or her preferred learning style.

Characteristics of Curriculum

1. Curriculum is continuously evolving.

2. The Curriculum is based on the needs of the people.

3. The Curriculum has educational quality.

4. The Curriculum as administrative flexibility.

5. The Curriculum is democratically conceived.

6. The Curriculum should have simplicity.

7. The Curriculum is the result of long-term effort.

8. The Curriculum is a complex details.

9. The Curriculum provides for logical sequence of subject matter.

10. The Curriculum should have clarity.

11. The Curriculum should show priority.

12. The Curriculum compliments and Cooperates with other programmes in Community.

Maslow's Hierarchy of Needs or Maslow's Theory of Self-Actualization

Utkarsh Education

Maslow's Hierarchy of Needs

or

Maslow's Theory of Self-Actualization

The theory of self-actualization was developed by Abraham Maslow (1954). Maslow has presented his ideas in Maslow Theory, also known as Maslow need theory, through a journal A theory of human motivation in 1943 and after this magazine in his famous book Motivation and Personality of Humans. written in relation to the sequential requirements of. It is known as the most important theory of motivation in psychology and this theory of Maslow is also known as Need Hierarchy Model. His approach to understand human personality and motivation is different from other psychologists. He put forth the theory that man's basic needs are arranged in a "hierarchy". The appearance of one need generally depends on the satisfaction of the others. They are closely related to each other and may be arranged from the lowest to the highest development of the personality. The five sets of basic needs is given in hierarchy as follows:

Maslow's Hierarchical Structure of Needs

1. Physiological Needs

While the physiological needs, i.e., the need for the food or hunger, thirst, sex, etc., are necessary for survival are at the bottom of the structure the psychological needs, i.e., self actualization are at the top. Starting from the satisfaction of the physiological needs, every individual strives for the satisfaction of the other needs of a higher order and this striving provides motivation for his/her behaviour. In this way the motivational behaviour of a person is always dominated not by his/her satisfied needs but by his/her unsatisfied wants, desires and needs.

2. Safety Needs

When the basic needs are gratified or successfully fulfilled then safety needs become a dominant force in the personality of the individual. It means maintaining order and security and concern about their future safety. Hoarding money. purchase buildings, land and invest in LIC, etc., belongs to safety need and feeling psychologically secure.

3. Belongingness and Love Needs

When these needs are gratified the third need like belongingness and love need becomes operational. The individual is interested in making intimate relationship with other members of the society, being an accepted member of an organized group and interested to identify with the group life. But in big cities, people living in the same building do not know the next door neighbour and have no social life.

4. Self - Esteem Needs or Independence

The fourth order of needs are esteem need. It means reputation, self respect, prestige, self-regard, status and social success and fame. One feels hurt when his/her self respect is injured. There are many status symbols in the society which give the feelings of self-esteem as possessing a house, land or bank balance, titles of honour and automobile, etc. Another type of esteem need is the need to feel superior to others. This need is gratified by purchasing of items as good and costly clothes. Maslow believed that suffient gratification of the esteem needs lessens their dominating force in a person's life and enabling him/her to move in the direction of self-actualization.

5. Self - Actualization 

The highest need is self-actualization. An individual can actualize his/her potentialities as a human being only after fulfilling the higher level needs life love and esteem. Maslow writes that "A musician must make music, an artist must paint. a poet must write poetry, if he/she is to be ultimately at peace with himself/herself. What a man can be, he must be. He/She must be true to his/her own nature. This need we may call self-actualization."

When an individual is creative, non-conformists have sense of humour, keep means and ends distinguishable, democratic outlook, appreciate basic goods of life, high degree of spontaneity and simplicity, detachment, autonomous and accept themselves with others are the characteristics of self actualizers.

Thus the fulfilment of self-actualization is a must for an individual otherwise he/she will feel discontented and restless unless he/she strives for what he/she is fitted for.

Motivation

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Motivation 

Meaning and Definition of Motivation

Motivation is commonly meant to be encouraged for doing an activity, in this sense it symbolizes a process. However in the field of psychology, this term is used in two forms, as a process and as a product. As a process, it is used in the form of such a psychophysical process which inculcates such energy in an individual that he is encouraged to do a particular task. This process has a unique synthesis of affective and conative domains; in it, an individual becomes eager emotionally, then this eagerness takes the form of energy and fills encouragement and vigour in him, and ultimately, it inspires him to do a particular task. As a product, it is used in the form of that energy or power which is created from affective eagerness and which inspires an individual to do a particular work.

Historically, the word motivation comes from the Latin root 'movers' which means to move. It means motivation is the process of arousing movement in the organism which is produced and regulated through the release of energy within the tissues.

Different psychologists have defined this in different ways. 

1. Good has defined: Motivation is the process of arousing, sustaining and regulating an activity. 

2. Good, Blair, Jones and Simpson have defined : Motivation is the process of in which the learner's internal energies or needs are directed towards various goal objects in his environment. 

3. F.J. Medonald defined: Motivation is an energy change within the person characterized by affective arousal and anticipatory goal reaction.

4. Guilford defined "A motive is a particular internal factor or condition that tends to initiate and to sustain activity". Thus motivation includes all those internal conditions which begin an activity or sustain it.

5. Bernard defined "Motivation refers to all those phenomena which are involved in the stimulation of action towards particular objectives where previously there was little or no movement towards those goals". 

6. Atkinson defined "Motivation is the arousal of tendency to act or to produce one or more effects".

Meaning and Definitions of Motives

The factors which inculcate motivation in an individual towards doing an activity are called motives. Motives are generally divided into two classes internal motives and external motives.

By internal motives is meant physiological or biological motives in an individual, as self-defence, hunger, love, sex.

By external motives is meant environmental or psychological motives of an individual, as self-esteem, social level and aspiration for attaining a particular achievement.

So, motives can be defined in the following form:

Motives are those internal and external conditions of a person which motivate him to perform a particular task and keep him active until the realization of objective.

Theories of Motivation

Different psychologists have opined differently about the inculcation of motivation in people. These opinions are recognized as theories of motivation. Some of the important ones are as follows:

1. Instinct Theory: This theory was laid down by McDougall According to this theory, each behaviour of man is governed by his instincts, the emotions inherent behind instincts work as motives. In the context of this theory the first thing is that the psychologists are not in agreement about the number of instincts, and second, this theory does not stand on its own test. Instincts are identical in all individuals, then their behaviour too should be identical, but so is not the case.

2. Psychoanalytic Theory: This theory was propounded by Freud According to this theory, there are two basic factors of the motivation that influences man's behaviour instincts and unconscious mind According to Freud, basically there are only two instincts-life instind (eros) and death instinct (thanatos) which incline an individual toward constructive or destructive behaviour respectively. His unconscious mind also influences his behaviour unknowingly. In the context of the theory, the first thing is that the views of Freud regarding instinct are n acceptable to psychologists, and secondly, human behaviour is governed not by unconscious mind alone, but also by his sub-conscious mind and conscious mind.

3. Drive Theory: This theory was laid down by Klark L. Hull. According to this theory, physical needs of man create stress in him. which is called drive in psychological terminology, and these drives motivate an individual to work in a particular way later. Later the psychologists added psychological needs to these physical needs also, yet this theory remains incomplete in itself because this does not explain the higher cognitive behaviour of man.

4. Incentive Theory: This theory was laid down by Bolles and Pfaffman. According to this theory, man is influenced by the object, situation or activity located in his environment to act. They have considered all these factors in the environment as incentive. According to them, incentives are of two types-positive and negative. Positive incentives, such as food and water, push an individual towards the goal, while negative incentives, such as punishment and electric shock, prevent an individual from proceeding towards the goal. Because this theory lays emphasis only on external factors, so it is incomplete in itself.

5. Physiological Theory: This theory was propounded by Morgan. According to this theory, motivation is not created by any external stimulus, rather it is created due to the changes occurring in the physiological systems within the body. This theory overlooks the effect of environmental factors on man, so it is also incomplete in itself.

6. Need Theory: This theory was propounded by Maslow. According to this theory, human behaviour is inspired by his needs. Maslow has presented needs in a particular sequence. According to Maslow, so long man does pot fulfill his needs of one level, he does not proceed towards the needs of the next level. This is true for Maslow to say that man is motivated by his needs, but this is not true that man meets his needs in a particular sequence. Therefore, this theory is also incomplete in itself.

Functions of Motivation

Motivation has four fundamental functions in learning. These are:

(a) Motivation energizes the behaviour of the organism (the child) and arouse him/her for action (initiates the activity).

(b) Motivation direct and regulate our behaviour (the child's activity).

(c) Motivation controls behaviour and does not allow the child to move in haphazard way.

(d) Motivation directed toward a selective goal (not all the activities) which the individual sets for himself/ herself. It provides satisfaction after completion or achievement of goals.

Types of Motivation

Different classifications of motives have been effected from different view points. These are innate or intransic or natural and outward or acquired or extransic or artificial. When motivation arise from within the individual and is not linked with external forces and motivate the individual to perform some task or behave in a manner is called intransic motivation or Motivation is intrinsic when an individual recognises an activity as self-rewarding or derives satisfaction from the activity. Here motives come directly from within the person and no external pressures are necessary.

Similarly when outside forces such as praise/blame. rewards/punishment, and competition/cooperation, etc.. compel the individual and provide incentives to achieve the goal is called extrinsic motivation. Or when a child does not perceive the inherent value in an activity and pursues the activity not for its own sake but for the sake of some external reward is called extransic motivation.

Functions of Motivation

Motivation has four fundamental functions in learning. These are:

(a) Motivation energizes the behaviour of the organism (the child) and arouse him/her for action (initiates the activity).

(b) Motivation direct and regulate our behaviour (the child's activity).

(c) Motivation controls behaviour and does not allow the child to move in haphazard way.

(d) Motivation directed toward a selective goal (not all the activities) which the individual sets for himself/ herself. It provides satisfaction after completion or achievement of goals.

Techniques of Classroom Motivation

Psychologists have developes several techniques in order to keep students fully motivated. We shall discuss some special techniques in brief.

1. Understanding the Degree of Maturation Required for Learning

2. Bringing Assignments within Child's Experience

3. Respect for Personality of the Child, Appealing to Ego-Maximization

4. Securing Attention, Creating Interest and Enthusiasm

5. Attitude In Motivation

6. Praise and Reproof In Learning

7. Emphasis on Positive Guidance

8. Clear Assignments and Definite Goals

9. Encouraging Self Motivation among Children

10. Making Unconscious and Semiconscious Needs and Wants Conscious

11. Development of Self-Appraisal

12. Developing Values, Ideals and Life Goals

13. Setting a Good Example

14. Emphasis on Group Dynamics

15. Competition vs. Cooperation

16. Participation Through Participation

17. Appealing to as Many Motives as Possible and to the Total Personality

18. Token Economy

19. Knowledge of Progress

20. Effective Repetition and Active Participation.

Factors of Motivation

Forgetting

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Forgetting

 Meaning and Definition of Forgetting

Generally when a learnt material or activity cannot be recalled, it is called forgetting. However, in psychological terminology, the facts, incidents or experiences that the brain retains in the form of memory traces and is unable to bring to the conscious mind again when needed this mental process is called forgetting. Some psychologists have term it negative memory also. Psychologists have defined forgetting in their on way, 

Munn has defined in his words: Forgetting is failing to retain or to be unable to recall what has been acquired.

Drever has defined in his words: Forgetting means failure at any time to recall an experience, when attempting to do so or to perform an action previously learned.

Causes of Forgetting

Psychologists have conducted studies to find out why the experiences, knowledge and activities that have been learnt are forgotten. On the basis of their studies, they have laid down some theories of forgetting which are called theoretical causes. They have also located some general causes, which are called general causes. We shall present them here in brief: 

Theoretical Causes

Psychologists have accepted three theoretical causes of forgetting: 

1. Theory of Disuse: The psychologists who favour this theory say that when an individual learns something, some memory traces are formed in his brain, and he memorizes the learnt material or activities with the help of these memory traces; however, if these are not repeated, these memory traces are erased with the passage of time and the individual forgets the learnt material or activities. Of course, an individual is not able to forget some motor skills, as riding a bicycle, driving a car, swimming, etc. even without practice over a long period of time. In addition to this, the material or activity that has been over-learnt by him, he does not forget that also, such as the national anthem learnt during childhood. Some bitter experiences are also remembered the whole life, as some fire accident, drowning in water, being insulted by somebody, etc.

2. Theory of Interference: The proponents of this theory say that the mental activities performed just before and after learning a new Content or activity interfere in its memorization. The first President of the Stanford University, D.S. Jordan commanded mastery over the names of  species of fishes, but as he learnt the name of an individual, he forgot the name of one species of fish. This interesting tale supports the concept of Interference in memorization. These interferences are of two types:

(i) Retroactive Inhibition: The newly learnt material affects the previously learnt material, even normal walking after learning also inhibits memorizing. Sleeping after learning has better results.

(ii) Proactive Inhibition: Under proactive inhibition, the previously learnt material interferes in learning the new material. It has been found in tests that proactive inhibition hinders less in recalling the meaningful material, but more in recalling meaningless material. 

If the material is learnt more than the limit, then retroactive and proactive inhibition becomes negligible.

3. Theory of Repression: According to Freud, an individual attempts to forget displeasing experiences in his life because they create anxiety whenever they are memorized. If the impulses that create anxiety are repressed fully and are prevented from coming into the consciousness, then it is called repression. The process of repressions is adopted by the individual himself, or it can be adopted directly by others. Many unnecessary things inculcate anxiety, fear, grief, etc., it is necessary to forget them. It is also necessary for some mentally ill individuals to forget, which is done by the repression process. 

General Causes

Following are the general causes of forgetting:

1. Ill-health: An individual forgets the learnt things due to ill-health.

2. Mental Illness: The learnt things are forgotten due to mental illnesses, mental instability, mental hurt, mental conflict, etc.

3. Nature of Learnt Material: If the learnt material is simple and meaningful, it is memorized over a long time; on the other hand, complex and meaningless material is forgotten soon.

4. Quantity of Learnt Material: If the quantity of learnt material is more, then there is a possibility of forgetting it fully or partially. This also depends on the nature of the material.

5. Methods of Learning: The material learnt by uninteresting methods is forgotten sooner.

 
6. Incomplete Learning: If a material is learnt incompletely, then it is forgotten sooner.

7. Time Interval: When a long interval of time has elapsed after having learnt a material and it is hardly used in the interval, then the material is generally forgotten.

8. Disuse: Disinterest, inattention and disuse of a material cause the forgetting of a material.

Means of Minimizing Forgetting

All those measures are adopted for diminishing forgetting which are applied for enhancing memory. These measures are as follows:

(1) A learner should be physically healthy.

(2) He should be free from mental illnesses. 

(3) He should be free from mental hurts and mental conflicts.

(4) The utility of the material to be learnt should be made clear to the learner.

(5) Most suitable methods should be used for learning.

(6) The learnt material should be repeated. 

(7) The teacher's behaviour should be favourable.

Importance of Forgetting in Education

Forgetting is a mental process contrary to memorization. Generally, memorization is important in the life of every individual, but forgetting is also useful in life. Accepting the importance of forgetting. Collins and Drever have written:

It is true that forgetting is the opposite of remembering, but from a practical point of view, forgetting is almost as useful as remembering.

Forgetting is also very important in the field of education. Its importance can be discussed in the following points:

(1) The memory capability of students is limited and only limited experiences can be retained in it; so it is necessary to retain new useful things and to forget useless things.

(2) A student learns new content in the class, if he does not forget the unsuitable material learnt in the class, then it is not possible to the new material and recall it when needed.

(3) If all experiences of life are accumulated in the brain of students, then they would be unable to organize them properly and it would become a burden for them.

(4) An individual succeeds in memorization when he accumulates useful things and forgets useless things: the existence of these two contradictory types of things would create a situation of mental conflict, which can make him forget even useful things.

(5) There are many such experiences and incidents in life which create suffering and tension, so it is better to forget such experiences and incidents.

 (6) It is very necessary to forget the past in order to improve the future life.