The Concept of Chronological Age (CA), Mental Age (MA),Basal Age (BA) and Intelligence Quotient (IQ)

 The Concept of CA, MA, BA and IQ

It is a matter of fact that the function of psychological tests is to measure individual differences. But the ideas of intelligence test was first mooted by the French Psychologist, Alfred Binet to measure intelligence and before that attempts were made to measure intelligence through unscientific or crude manner. Now intelligence test is used in a variety of situations and provides a single score such as I.Q. indicating individuals general intellectual level.

Before we make an attempt to assess the intelligence of an individual the following basic concepts must be understood. These are as follows.

(1) Chronological Age:

It refers to the actual age of an individual or his/her date of birth. It is symbolically called as CA.

(2) Mental Age

The concept of Mental age was introduced by Alfred Binet in the year 1908. MA merely indicates the level of development which a child has reached at a given age. It shows the mental level but it does not tell us how bright the child is. It gives us an idea whether the child is advanced or retarded or average when compared to normal children of his/her age.

The concept of MA has made the interpretation of Intelligence easier. If the MA of a child is equal to his chronological age then he is normal. When he is greater than the CA, he is advanced and less than the CA is retarded. It is otherwise called the mental maturity achieved by the child at some particular age or MA is a kind of score which gives an idea of about the intellectual development of the child. Maximum mental age of a person is 19 or 20. The procedure of calculation of mental age is as follows. A child's mental age is calculated by adding the basal age and the credits (in terms of months) obtained by him in subsequent levels.

Suppose a child takes a test of intelligence and there are six sub-tests in the test. Success in passing one sub-test means a credit of 2 months and passes all the six sub-tests means a credit of 12 months. Take for example a five year child and his success and credits earned at various levels are given below.

1. Passed all tasks at 5 years level   -  5 years (Basal age) 

2. Passed 4 out of 6 tasks at 6 years  - 8 months credit level

                                                               (4 x 2)

3. Passed 4 out of 6 tasks at 7 year  -  4 months credit level

                                                              (2 x 2)

4. Failed all tasks at 8 years level    -  0 months credit

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               MA Total: 5yrs 12 months = 6 years

Thus, the child MA would be 6 years though he is chronologically 5 years old. Thus mental age basal age + partial credit or fractional credit for the items up to the terminal age.

3. Basal Age

Basal age is that age of the child where he or she can solve all questions in a given test. It is the basal age which helps in the calculation of mental age. Suppose a child is 5 year age (CA). He solves all questions in a given test meant for a child of 6 and 7 years and solves only one question out of 6 questions in a test of 8 years and unable to solve any of the questions of 9 years. Thus his basal age is 7 years 2 months though his CA is 5 years.

4. The Concept of I.Q.

Intelligence Quotient is the ratio between mental age and chronological age multiplied by 100. Symbolically it is called I.Q. I.Q. is calculated with the formula, i.e., I.Q.= MA/CA x 100. In the year 1916 Stern gave us this concept to CA know the degree of brightness or dullness. It is a method of defining relative intelligence because IQ is independent of the scores which he happens to make at a particular age.

It has been observed by Terman in 1916 revision test that individual mental age increases along with his chronological age up to 16 years. Though the CA goes on increasing yet for the purpose of calculation of IQ, chronological age may be taken as 16 years. Again in the 1937 scale, Terman assumed that for computing IQ, the CA for all adults was taken as 16. Since mental growth continues beyond the age 16, the highest chronological age included in the IQ tables is 18, in the 1960 scales. Accordingly the CA of any adult taking the test is taken as 18 for computing the IQ. Thus Intelligence Quotient in fact a ratio of the physical and the mental age of the child or ratio of mental growth or the rate of mental growth of a child.

Limitations of 1.Q.

1. IQs on one test are not comparable to those obtained on another test. 

2. IQ in case of adults are only hypothetical and are open to doubt. 

3. IQ. tells the rate of maturity but two children having an I.Q. of 120. may not be equally mature. 

4. The difference between an I.Q. of 70 and 80 is not the same as the difference between an I.Q. of 110 and 120.

Comparison Between Classical And Opreant Conditioning

COMPARISON BETWEEN CLASSICAL AND OPERANT CONDITIONING

    Classical Conditioning                                                               Operant Conditioning

                                                                              

1. It was developed by Russian Physiologist               1. It was developed by B.F Skinner.       Ivan P. Pavlov.

2. It is known as Respondent/ Types or signal             2. It is known as Type R/Instrumental  conditioning.                                                                 conditioning.                                     

3. In classical conditioning the CR and UCR              3. In operant conditioning they are       are the same.                                                                different, i.e.. pressing the lever is                                                                                              different from eating food.

4. In classical conditioning reinforcement                   4. In operant conditioning the response is provided by the unconditioned stimulus.                  causes conditioned reinforcement to                                                                                          appear. 

5. In classical conditioning the association                  5. In operant conditioning association between (S-R) is on the basis of law of                       between (S-R) is on the basis of law    contiguity.                                                                     of effect.

6. Reinforcement, i.e., food is presented                      6. Reinforcement is provided after the first to elicit the response here.                                     response is made by the organism. 

7. The essence of learning is stimulus                          7. The essence of learning is response substitution.                                                                   modification.

8. In this type of conditioning beginning is                  8. Here beginning is made with the made with the help of specific stimull that bring                        responses occur naturally.  certain responses.

9. It is stimulus oriented.                                               9. It is response oriented.

10. Classical conditioning is limited to                         10. Operant conditioning is limited to  autonomic response.                                                     skeletal behaviour.              

Maslow's Humanistic Theory

Maslow's Humanistic Theory

A.H. Maslow propounded this theory in the context of personality development. Maslow opposed this opinion of behaviourists and psychoanalysts that human behaviour depends on external and internal stimuli. He minutely studied the process of development of man's personality development and arrived at the conclusion that the internal faculties of man functions as the drive for him. He presented these drives in the form of needs of man. According to Maslow, man arranges material means for the realization of these needs, analyzes favourable and unfavourable object, fact, activity and situation, etc. and applies them all in a systematic manner. Motivation is the most important aspect in this theory, so it is also called motivation theory. Maslow has classified the needs of human beings in a consecutive sequence, which is called ascending hierarchy. It can be displayed in the following form:

1. Physiological Needs: According to Maslow, physiological needs are the basic and most important needs of man. These chiefly include the needs related to food, water, rest and sex. His life depends on the realization of these needs. Generally he is not able to think of meeting the higher needs than these without having met them. These needs are necessary and strong for him. He makes effort for meeting them. These biological needs are so intense for man that he even overlooks social values and norms to meet these needs.

2. Safety Needs: According to Maslow, having met the physiological needs, man proceeds towards meeting safety needs. These needs include physical security, stability, dependency, protection, fear, anxiety, etc. Man thinks about the means to meet them and makes all efforts to get them. Construction of rules and laws, and abidance by them also fall under these needs.

3. Belongingness and Love Needs: The needs of the third level are belongingness and love. Belongingness motivates man to get his respect and honour in the family and society, he makes attempts to become a member of a group and become a good neighbour. Love inspires man to ove others and to get love from others. In case a man does not get belongingness and love from others he becomes maladjusted.

4. Esteem Needs: Having realized the first three types of needs. desire of self-esteem and to get esteem from others works as motive. He identifies his own ability and capability in order to get self-esteem and discovers methods of increasing it, and he develops the spirits of self- confidence, achievement, freedom, etc. in himself. He gets admiration, prestige and esteem from others due to these higher qualities. As a result, he wants to keep himself able and does productive works for the society.

5. Self-Actualization Needs: According to Maslow, the needs of self-actualization are the final motives. A man proceeds towards the realization of this level of needs only when he has attained the needs of first four levels. By self-actualization is meant such a state where an individual is fully aware of all his abilities and inner potentialities and possesses a desire to develop himself accordingly.

Characteristics of Maslow's Theory

(1) According to this theory of Maslow, human needs work as motives for him and he remains active for their realization. 

(2) According to this theory, the needs of man are met in a specified sequence. At first, man meets the needs of the lower level, then he makes effort for the realization of needs of the higher levels. 

(3) According to Maslow, the needs of the first two levels - physiological needs and safety needs are of low level needs and of the latter three levels needs are of higher level needs.

(4) According to this theory, as a man proceeds towards the realization of the needs of higher level, his personality starts to develop and on the realization of the ultimate need of self-actualization, he becomes a person with perfect personality.

(5) The concept of self-actualization assists a man to understand his inner potentialities. Maslow has described some characteristics of a self-actualized person-efficient in perception, accepts others, privacy and detachment, independent, identified with man- kind, democratic in outlook, sense of humour, creative and non- conformist.

Shortcomings of Maslow's Theory

(1) Maslow had taken only 49 subjects for his study and has pro- pounded this theory on the basis of that study. According to psychologists no theory propounded on the basis of such a less number of subjects can be scientific.

(2) The levels of needs as given by Maslow in his model cannot be separated from each other easily. Some needs can be included any two proximal levels, such as dependence with food, love with dependence, it is a difficult task to separate them.

(3) Psychologists are not in agreement with the qualities that Maslow has described about a self-actualized man.

(4) Maslow has said that a person crosses over from one level to another only when he has met the needs of one level. In practice a person takes over to the next level without having achieved the needs of the previous level. 

(5) The result of meeting the need of esteem, is generally compestion which can transform into hatred and enmity later. 

Utility of Maslow's Theory in Education

This theory of Maslow is a humanist theory of personality, it considers man, not as a machine, but as a biological organism. Different aspects of this theory put forth the following implications which can be considered as its utility in the field of education.

(1) The needs of children at different levels are different, teachers should construct the curriculum according to their needs. 

(2) The curriculum of education for any level should be related to the real life of the children of that level.

(3) Before teaching and training the children, they should be motivated for that.

(4) Needs of the children are the strongest motives, so all that which has to be taught to students, should be related to their needs.

(5) The needs of self-esteem and self-actualization should be aroused in students in order to construct their character and make then persons of higher personality.

Skinner Operant or Instrumental Conditioning Theory (S-R Theory with Reinforcement)

Skinner Operant or Instrumental Conditioning Theory (S-R Theory with Reinforcement)

B.F. Skinner's Operant Conditioning or Instrumental Conditioning Theory of Learning proved the importance of reinforcement in learning rather than the connections being formed between stimuli and responses. The theory is called the operant conditioning as it is based on certain operations or actions which a person has to carry out. In classical theory of Pavlov, the dog was harnessed on a table and was passive. The dog performed no operations.

The presence of a stimulus is essential to evoke a response. The subject (e.g., child express fear only when he hears a loud noise and the dog waits for food to arrive salivation) had no control over the happening and is made to behave in response to the stimulus situations. But Skinner revolted against it and argued that in practical situation of our life we cannot wait for things to happen in the environment and it is not always essential that there must be some known stimuli or cause for evoking a response. In operant conditioning the subjects performed acts or 'carried out' operations and were active. A dog, a child or an individual does something, behaves in some manner, which, operates, on the environment which In turn responds to the activity. Based on the findings of his experiments Skinner concluded that "behaviour is shaped and maintained by its consequences. It is operated by the organism and maintained by its results. The occurrence of such behaviour was named operant behaviour and the process of learning that plays a part in learning such behaviour, was named as operant conditioning. More precisely operant conditioning refers to a kind of learning process where a response is made more probable or more frequent by reinforcement. It helps in the learning of operant behaviour, the behaviour that is not necessarily associated with a known stimulus.

The Experiments regarding Operant Conditioning

Skinner conducted a series of experiments with animals. For conducting the experiments with rats, he constructed a sound proof box which was equipped with a bar and a food tray.

He put a hungry rat in the box. It is so arranged that when the rat presses the lever, the feeder mechanism is activated, a light or a special sound is produced and a small pellet of food is released into the tray. All these activities were connected to a recording system. Thus the rat learned the task of pressing the bar more frequently when the food pellet reinforced the behaviour. Here, giving out the correct response is more Important and succeeded in changing the traditional S-R formula to RS formula. He believed that there are responses without known stimuli and these responses are called "emitted" responses. Responses to known stimuli are called elicited responses. He believes response first then stimulus and recognizes two kinds of reinforcers-positive and negative.

Mechanisms of Operant Conditioning

The Important thing in the mechanism of operant conditioning is the emitting of a desired response and its proper management through suitable reinforcement. Here the organism responds in a certain way so as to produce the reinforcing stimulus. The subsequent reinforcement gradually conditions the organism to emit the desired response and thus learn the desired act. The following are some of the mechanisms of operant conditioning:

(a) Shaping: It refers to the judicious use of selective reinforcement to bring certain desirable changes in the behaviour of the organism. Suppose we want to train a child for toilet training. Simply putting the child on the toilet is not successful because as soon as the child is placed on the stool, he/she begins to cry. To shape his/her behaviour, the child is given a chocolate whenever he/she is placed on the toilet. It has been observed that successful elimination follows, Similarly other techniques may also be used. In this way, shaping may be used as a successful technique for training individuals to learn difficult and complex behaviour and also for introducing desirable modification of their behaviour.

(b) Chaining: It is a sort of chain reaction where one object sparks the other object in its proximity and in turn causes sparking in the next object in the chain and so on. When we see someone we know, it is an effective stimulus for starting the chain responses. We greet him and he greets in response. His response to our greeting acts not only as a reward for our greeting but also as a stimulus for generating further response and in this way one generated response gives birth to another -response and so on indicates chaining.

(c) Generalisation: It is a fact that both animals and human beings are capable of generalizing experiences and knowledge acquired in one learning situation to another. Thus due care should be taken by the parents and teachers to reinforce the behaviour of the children only after they demonstrate the ability to generalize correctly.

(d) Discrimination: Ability of discrimination is very important in the behaviour formation. For example, in the Skinner box the animal learns to press the lever when the light is on and not to press it when the light is off. Thus the light becomes a clue or signal for the operant behaviour, I.e., the lever press response. Here the animal develops a discriminative operant which is an operant response extended to one set of circumstances but not to another. Similarly in the learning process the teacher should see that feedback is provided to the children as and when they are able to discriminate the good from bad or to provide proper feedback in correctness of his responses.

(e) Reinforcement: The concept of reinforcement is central in operant conditioning theory and is identical to the presentation of a reward. A reinforcer is the stimulus the presentation of which increases the probability of a response. Skinner used reinforcement as a procedure for controlling behaviour which produces stimulus response connection and recognizes two kinds of reinforcers-positive and negative.

Positive Reinforcement

A positive reinforcer is any stimulus (such as food, money, water, social approval, praise, knowledge of results) the introduction or presentation of which increases the likelihood of a particular behaviour. In the educational context, praise, grades, medals, and other prizes awarded to students are examples of positive reinforcers. 

Negative reinforcement

A negative reinforcer is any stimulus or those unpleasant stimuli the removal or withdrawal (such as loud noise, electric shock, social disapproval, condemnation) of which increases the likelihood of a particular behaviour. In the educational context, a teacher saying to the students that whoever does drill work properly in the class would be exempted from homework act as a negative reinforcer.

The schedules of Reinforcement

The term schedule of reinforcement suggests the particular pattern according to which reinforcers follow responses. 

Some important schedules of reinforcement are the following:

1. Continuous schedule of reinforcement: It is an arrangement of providing reinforcement after every correct response. In the teaching-learning process a student may be rewarded for every correct answer in the form of warm regards or praise or praise or approval indicates continuous schedule of reinforcement.

2. Fixed Interval reinforcement Schedule: In the fixed or periodic interval schedule the reinforcement is presented after a prescribed interval of time, i.e., every 2 minutes or 4 minutes. Here emphasis is not given on correct responses rather it is only at the expiry of the fixed interval reinforcement is given.

3. Fixed ratio reinforcement schedule: In this schedule the reinforcement is given after a fixed number of responses. It means the performance of the learner is important rather than anything else. A learner may be rewarded (receives a chocolate) after he/she answers a fixed number of questions say 2 or 3. Another example of fixed ratio schedule is a rat gets a pellet of food only after pressing the bar say 7 to 8 times.

4. Variable reinforcement schedule: When reinforcement is given at varying intervals of time or after a varying number of responses, is called a variable reinforcement schedule. In this case, reinforcement is intermittent or irregular. Here the learner does not know at which time he/she is going to be rewarded and consequently he/she remains motivated with a hope of reinforcement.

Implications of the Theory of Operant Conditioning

The following implications emerged from the theory of operant conditioning:

(i) The theory provides the basis for programmed Instruction. It is a kind of learning experience in which a programme takes the place of tutor for the students and leads him through a set of specified behaviours.

(ii) The theory has drawn attention to the Inadequacy and unsuitability of reinforcement procedure adopted in our educational system. Thus the element of reinforcement can be strengthened in the teaching- learning process.

(iii) Generally, in our schools, the desirable behaviour of the learners is not immediately reinforced to raise the probability of the recurrence of the same behaviour in future. Thus it suggests delay of reinforcement destroys the effect of reinforcing stimuli, hence, reinforcement should be given at an appropriate time and at each step.

(iv) The principle of operant conditioning can be applied in behaviour modification and ultimately desired behaviour can be strengthened depending upon the manipulation of reward.

(v) Operant conditioning emphasizes the importance of schedules in the process of reinforcement of behaviour.

(vi) Operant conditioning suggested appropriate alternatives to punishment in the form of rewarding appropriate behaviour and ignoring inappropriate behaviour, for its gradual extinction.

(vii) The root of mechanical learning in the form of teaching machines and computer assisted instruction have taken a shape in place of usual classroom instruction due to operant conditioning.

Pavlov's Classical or Respondent Conditioning Theory (S-R Theories without Reinforcement)

 Pavlov's Classical or Respondent Conditioning Theory (S-R Theories without Reinforcement)

The theory of classical conditioning was developed by a Russian physiologist named Ivan P. Pavlov in the year 1904. It is defined as a process in which a neutral stimulus, by pairing with a natural stimulus, acquires all the characteristics of natural stimulus. It is called substitution learning because we substitute a neutral stimulus in place of a natural stimulus. This is also called as respondent conditioning because the subject has noting to do himself and becomes conditioned and does the things. To understand the nature of the process of conditioning, the experiments performed by Pavlov is given below:

Experiment

Pavlov kept a dog hungry for a few days and then placed it in a sound proof room which was fitted with certain mechanically controlled devices. The observer himself remained hidden from the dog but was able to view the experiment by means of a set of mirrors. Arrangement was made to give food to the dog through an automatic mechanism. But everytime before giving food a bell was rung. When the food was given and the bell was rung it was marked that there was a automatic secretion of saliva from the mouth of the dog This activity was repeated several times. After several trials the dog was given no food but the bell was rung. It was found that even the absence of food (the natural stimulus) the ringing of the bell (an artificial stimulus) caused the dog to secrete the saliva (natural response).

The above experiment thus, brings to light four essential elements of the conditioning process, i.e., unconditioned stimulus (US. natural stimulus) is food results in a natural response called the unconditioned response (UR). The conditioned stimulus (CS, artificial stimulus) elicit conditioned response (CR). It is given below.

1. UCS                     -                 UCR

   (Food)                                    (Saliva)

2. CS+ UCS             -                 UCR(Bell+ Food)                             (Saliva)

3. CS                        -                 CR   

 (Bell)                                 (Saliva)

Principles of Conditioning

1. Reinforcement: The salivary response to the bell was strengthened as a r

esult of the food being repeatedly presented just after the bell rang.

2. Extinction: If the bell was rung too many times without the food to reinforce, the response could have disappeared.

3. Generalisation: The dog tended to respond to any sound roughly similar to the ringing of the bell.

4. Discrimination: To teach the dog to distinguish the right sound and other sounds, selective reinforcement was used, that is, the dog was given food only after the sound of the bell, but never any other sound.

Educational Implications

(i) The formation of positive attitudes, fears, love. prejudices or hatred towards an object. phenomenon or event can be developed through conditioning. Thus classical conditioning can be used to develop favourable or unfavourable attitude towards learning. teacher and the school.

(ii) We should associate faults with punishment so that whenever a child feels like committing faults, he/ she anticipates the punishments. Thus rewards and punishments may be given right at the time of the act and not to be delayed.

(iii) Repetition and habit formation is to be strengthed in the process of learning.

(iv) Most of our learning is associated with the process of conditioning from the beginning. Thus the teacher is to develop the good reading habits through conditioning.

(v) The process of conditioning not only helps us in learning what is desirable but also helps in eliminating, avoiding or unlearning of undesirable habits, unhealthy attitudes, phobias through deconditioning.

Types of Learning

Learning 

Types of Learning

Learning has been classified by psychologists and educationists in various ways depending upon the domain specific (cognitive, affective and conative) aspects of human behaviour, l.e.. verbal learning, concept learning, learning of principles, problem solving, attitudinal learning, and learning of skills or motor learning as compared to the learning according to the methods or techniques that are employed for the Introduction of behavioural changes, l.e, conditioning (Classical and Operant), discrimination learning, chain learning, serial learning, associative learning and insightful learning and so on.

However, as an alternative basis Gagne has classified learning into eight types in a hierarchical order. These eight types are the following.

1. Signal or classical conditioning

2. SR learning or instrumental or operant conditioning 

3. Chain learning

4. Verbal associate learning 

5. Discrimination learning

6. Concept learning

7. Learning of principles, and 

8. problem solving

1 & 2. Conditioning (Classical and operant)

Conditioning is considered by many psychologists to be the fundamental form of learning. Conditioning always involves the substitution of one stimulus for another and the forcing of an association between them. A child sucks a nipple when hungry and withdraws from painful stimuli. Thus a child acquires new patterns of responses. Both the classical and operant conditioning are given in details subsequently.

3 & 4. Chain learning (Verbal and motor)

There are mainly two types of chaining, L.e., motor and verbal. Chaining means the connection of a set of individual S R in sequence. Virtually all the learning taking place in formal education is verbal learning. The language we speak and the communication devices we use are the product of verbal learning signs, pictures, symbols, words, figures, sounds and voices are employed by the individual as essential instruments for engaging in the process of learning.

Similarly, when learning involves primarily the use of muscles, it is called motor learning. In this type, the individual acquires new muscular coordinations as a mode of response to some situation. Learning to walk, to operate a typewriter, to swim, to play hockey, to play a musical instrument, drawing a geometrical design, riding a horse, driving a car, flying a plane, etc., are examples of motor learning.

5. Discrimination learning

In this type of learning, the subject is presented with two or more stimuli which differ in some detail. Here the task is to distinguish between the two situations. An infant before he can talk, generally learns to distinguish between his mother and his aunt, between milk and some other drink, and a dog and doll and so on.

6. Concept learning

A concept is a generalized idea about things, persons or events in the form of a mental image. The concept of "tree" is a mental image that throws up the similarities or common properties of all the different trees we know. We will call a thing "tree" when it had some specific characteristics, the image of which we have already acquired in our mind on account of our previous experience, perception and exercise of imagination. All our behaviour, verbal, symbolic, motor as well as cognitive are influenced by our concepts.

7. Learning of Principles

It depends on learning of concept formation and other forms of learning. There is a large number of principles that every individual masters in order to function properly in the environment. Most of the classroom learning contributes to the development of principles.

8. Problem Solving

It comes at the highest stage in the hierarchy of learning process. This learning requires the use of the cognitive abilities like reasoning, thinking, the power of observation, discrimination, generalisation, imagination, the ability to infer. draw conclusions and try out novel ways and experimenting. etc., by the learner Details are given separately.

Learning

Learning

Introduction

Learning occupies a very important place in our life. When the child is born, his/her mind is just like a clean slate. As soon as he/she comes in contact with his/her environment, he/she starts reacting and in this process of interaction of thehelp  individual within his/her environment, the
foundation of learning are laid down. It is only with the of the learning that the child learns many things and modifies his/her behaviour. Thus, experience, direct or indirect is found to play a dominant role in moulding and shaping the behaviour of the individual from the very beginning. The changes in behaviour brought about by experience are known as learning. The following are some of the definitions of learning.

Meaning and Definition of Learning 

There are some such tasks which a man learns in his natural and social environment, such as climbing up a tree, swimming in water, speaking a particular language, etc. These activities are called learned actions by psychologists. The process of learning these activities is called learning. Psychologist Woodworth, has defined it in this form. In his words:

The process of acquiring new knowledge and new responses is the process of learning.   

                                                                                                                              -Woodworth

Crow and Crow have taken it in a little wider form. In their words:                     

Learning is the acquisition of habits, knowledge and attitudes.                  -Crow and Crow

But most of the psychologists have defined learning as the process of behavioural change. In the words of Gates and others: 

Learning is the modification of behaviour through experience and training.

                                                                                                                 -Gates and others 

According to psychologist Charles E Skiner, man does not effect a change to his behaviour only for the sake of behavioural change, rather he also adjusts himself with the environment. He has defined learning on the basis of this fact. In his words:

Learning is a process of progressive behaviour adaptation.                    -C.E. Skiner

Hilgard has defined learning keeping these two factors before him. In his words: 

Learning is the process by which behaviour is originated or changed through practice or training.                         -Hilgard

According to Blair, Jones and Simpson, learning is neither behavioural change nor adjustment with the environment by behavioural change. According to them, learning should enable an individual to face the circumstances in the future, beside these two. In their words:

Any change of behaviour which is a result of experience and which causes people to face later situations differently, may be called learning.                      -Blair, Jones and Simpson

Some facts about the learning process:

1. Learning means acquisition of experience.

2. Learning means acquisition, retention and modification of experience. 

3. Learning is a change of behaviour.

4. Learning depends on practice and experience. 

5. Learning is acquisition of habit, skill and knowledge.

6. Learning is a process and not a product.

7. Learning is a continuous process and continues death.

8. Learning is purposive and goal directed.

9. Learning is a creative experience. 

10. Learning is Universal.

Nature of Learning

The nature and general characteristics of learning are as follows:

1. Learning is universal

Learning is not having any boundary. It is not restricted to any particular age, sex, race or cultures. It is applicable to all the living creatures, although, the degree of learning varies from creature to creature.

2. Learning is purposeful and goal directed

Learning is not an aimless activity. It provides clues and hints to the learner that there is something behind in learning and children learn with that hope and aspiration.

3. Learning is a continuous or never-ending process

Learning starts from birth and continues till death. It is a never ending process. At each stage the learner acquires new ideas and achieves something new, which is a continuous process.

4. Learning occurs both formal and informal situations

The child learns many things. He/She acquires new habits, skills and gains new information. Many things the child learns in a formal situation like that of a school. But a great many of these the child learns in informal situation in a family or with his/her friends when he/she is travelling, playing in an incidental manner.

5. Learning is the process of solving problems

In fact, all learning is problem solving. The child learns many thing during the course of time and try to apply all these to achieve a solution for a novel situation. Learning rules and principles help him/her to produce changes in his/her behaviour and abandonment of existing behaviour.

6. Learning is adjustment

Learning is the process of adjustment. The individual must learn to adjust himself/herself to the changes that take place around him/her. It prepares an individual for any adjustment and adaptation that may be necessary.

7. Learning Involves various dimensions of psychological and mental activities

For the effective learning both psychological, e.g.. motivation, Interest and ability and physiological bases, i.e.. nervous systems, brain, spinal cord, glands, etc., are essential. Therefore in schools children must be provided opportunity to learn by doing or learn by activity for effective learning.

8. Learning is more than academic mastery of subjects

In schools we generally think that learning is concerned with subjects and acquisition of information of facts. But learning is beyond to that and we learn different traits or characteristics, attitudes, values, interests, etc., rather than only mastery on academic subjects..

9. Learning is the function of practice

There is a saying that practice makes a man perfect. In this context practice does not mean repeating a response. It is repeated efforts of an individual to react to a situation effectively. Thus, practice help to drop out awkward, unhythmic and unnecessary responses and leads to improvement in learning.

10. Learning is a Process

Through learning modification of behaviour takes place. It constantly enlarges the child's understanding, leads to growth of abilities, perception and intellect. Though the entire learning situation is a very complex process yet the favourable environment can bring desirable and satisfactory growth on the part of the individual which is the ultimate goal of the learning.

11. Difference in learning is due to environment

12. Learning is a self-directed activity

13. Learning may be correct or incorrect

14 Learning is manifold in nature

15. Learning Involves perceptual operation and motor processes

Factors Affecting Influencing/Associated with Learning

The factors which are responsible for bringing about the betterment and improvement in learning or influence or associated with learning are given below :

(a) Maturation

Development of a child takes place because of two basic but complex processes-learning and maturation. Learning is possible only when a certain stage of maturation is reached. Psychologists have suggested that learning is effective if the activities or subject matter is at a rate commensurate with the development of the child.

(b) Motivation

Motivation is the very heart of the learning process. Motivation sets the activity which results in learning or it is the art of stimulating interest in the pupil and gives the direction to learning. Thus the teacher should apply various devices in the class room to motivate the children.

(c) The Organism and Perception

All knowledge is based on some sense perception. The loss of or defects in any sense means that knowledge and learning are impoverished in proportion to the loss. Learning is dependent on the relative perfection of the senses and the general condition of the organism. If there will be organic defects (visual, auditory, focal Infections and adenoids, etc.), then learning will be affected.

(d) Intellectual Ability or Capacity

It is a fact that various species of animals have different capacities to learn. Man is known to have greater capacity to learn then other living things. We know that human beings differ in their abilities to learn. On the basis of the Terman and Merril Intellectual classification we classify them as feeble. minded, normal or in the genius class in terms of their ability to learn. 

(e) Psychological Safety

Learning is a process of interaction in which the learner actively participates in the learning situation. Thus, the learner should be provided psychological satisfaction or safe situation so that he/she can participate freely and safely in the learning process.

(f) Readiness

If a person is ready to learn, the learning process will be more active. Thus the teacher should stimulate and develop the mental readiness in the children for effective learning in addition to seating arrangement, ventilation, light facilities and excessive noise.

(g) Drawing of a Study Schedule

A schedule is often useful in setting up regular habits of study and thus enabling the learner to make maximum use of his/her time and energy. A schedule acts as a challenge, as well as a guide and monitor. Thus drawing of a study schedule makes the learner attentive and persistent in learning.

(h) Attacking the Assignment Vigorously

Learning is an active, effortful process. There is no more effective method of study than merely to read the words of a book passively, waiting for the material somehow to register itself on the "mind". If the learner attack the learning task vigorously he/she can be a successful person than the passive group.

(i) Family Background and Socio-economic Status

Research in the field of family background and socio-economic status proved that learning achievement, attitudes, values and ability of the students are different due to urban and rural environment and socio-economic conditions of the family.

(j) Effect of Age on Learning

Learning capacity varies with age. Age accompanies mental maturation. The teacher, while constructing curriculum should keep in mind the various stage of the development of the child and adopt various methods of instructional process according to the age and grade level of the students.

(k) Environment

The progress and process of learning is very much under the influence of the environment. Therefore, the teacher should see that environment of the institution is congenial and cheerful otherwise it may affect the learning process, if it is not healthy.

(l) Fatigue and Bad Working Conditions

Fatigue is the state in which the organism is exhausted and requires rest. In a state of fatigue, the output is diminished or lowered efficiency or the quality is impaired. Fatigue may be muscular, sensory or mental. This may be due to bad seating arrangement, unhealthy atmosphere, poor environment, poor light, noise and over crowdedness, etc., affects the learning capacity. Similarly, learning is hampered by bad working conditions or distraction both at home and school.

(m) Difficulty, Meaningfulness and Length of Material

It is a fact that more difficult the learning material, the poor is the learning. Therefore, experimental studies have clearly indicated that more meaningful the material, the rapid is the learning. Being meaningful means that the material conveys some sense and has some associations and previous experience with the learner. There is little learning without meaning.

स्मृति व स्मरण (Memory & Remembering)

Utkarsh Education

स्मृति व स्मरण
Memory & Remembering

"Individuals differ in memory as they do in other abilities."-Woodworth

स्मृति का अर्थ व परिभाषा  

Meaning & Definition of Memory 

स्मृति एक मानसिक क्रिया है, स्मृति का आधार अर्जित अनुभव है, इनका पुनरुत्पादन परिस्थिति के अनुसार होता है। हमारे बहुत से मानसिक संस्कार स्मृति के माध्यम से ही होते हैं।

स्टर्ट एवं ओकडन (Sturt & Oakden,) के अनुसार :- -'स्मृति', एक जटिल शारीरिक और मानसिक प्रक्रिया है, जिसे हम थोड़े से शब्दों में इस प्रकार स्पष्ट कर सकते हैं। जब हम किसी वस्तु को छूते, देखते, सुनते या सूंघते हैं, तब हमारे 'ज्ञान-वाहक तन्तु' (Sensory Nerves) उस अनुभव को हमारे मस्तिष्क के 'ज्ञान-केन्द्र' (Sensory Center) में पहुँचा देते हैं। 'ज्ञान-केन्द्र' में उस अनुभव की 'प्रतिमा' बन जाती है, जिसे 'छाप' (Engram) कहते हैं। यह 'छाप' वास्तव में उस अनुभव का स्मृति चिन्ह (Memory Trace) होती है, जिसके कारण मानसिक रचना के रूप में कुछ परिवर्तन हो जाता है। यह अनुभव कुछ समय तक हमारे 'चेतन मन' में रहने के बाद 'अचेतन मन' (Unconscious Mind) में चला जाता है और हम उसको भूल जाते हैं। उस अनुभव को 'अचेतन मन' में संचित रखने और 'चेतन मन' में लाने की प्रक्रिया को 'स्मृति' कहते हैं। दूसरे शब्दों में, पूर्व अनुभवों को अचेतन मन में संचित रखने और आवश्यकता पड़ने पर चेतन मन में लाने की शक्ति को स्मृति कहते हैं।

1. वुडवर्थ :- जो बात पहले सीखी जा चुकी उसे स्मरण रखना ही स्मृति हैं। "Memory consists in remembering what has previously been fearned"-Woodworth 

2. रायबर्न :- अपने अनुभवों को संचित रखने और उनको प्राप्त करने के कुछ समय बाद चेतना के क्षेत्र में पुनः लाने की जो शक्ति हममें होती है, उसी को स्मृति कहते हैं।" "The power that we have to store our experiences and to bring them into the field of consciousness some time after the experiences have occurred, is termed memory."-Reyburn  

3. जेम्स" स्मृति उस घटना या तथ्य का ज्ञान है, जिसके बारे में हमने कुछ समय तक नहीं सोचा है, पर जिसके बारे में हमको यह चेतना है कि हम उसका पहले विचार या अनुभव कर चुके हैं।" "Memory is the knowledge of an event, or fact, of which, meantime we have not been thinking, with the additional consciousness that we have thought or experienced it before."-James

इन परिभाषाओं का विश्लेषण करने पर यह स्पष्ट होता है कि (1) स्मृति एक आदर्श पुनरावृत्ति है (2) यह सीखी हुई वस्तु का सीधा उपयोग है (3) इसमें अतीत में घटी घटनाओं की कल्पना द्वारा पहचान की जाती है। (4) अतीत के अनुभवों को पुनः चेतना में लाया जाता है।

स्मृतियों के प्रकार 

Kinds of Memories

स्मृति का मुख्य कार्य है—हमें किसी पूर्व अनुभव का स्मरण कराना। इसका अभिप्राय यह हुआ कि प्रत्येक अनुभव के लिए पृथक स्मृति होनी चाहिए। इतना ही नहीं, पर जैसा कि स्टाउट ने लिखा है :-"केवल नाम के लिए पृथक स्मृति नहीं होनी चाहिए, वरन् प्रत्येक विशिष्ट नाम के लिए भी पृथक स्मृति होनी चाहिए।  "There must not only by a separate memory for names, but separate memory for each particular name."-Stout 

1. व्यक्तिगत स्मृति : Personal Memory - इस स्मृति में हम अपने अतीत के व्यक्तिगत अनुभवों को स्मरण रखते हैं। हमें यह सदैव स्मरण रहता है कि संकट के समय हमारी सहायता किसने की थी। 

2. अव्यक्तिगत स्मृति : Impersonal Memory - इस स्मृति में हम बिना व्यक्तिगत अनुभव किए बहुत-सी पिछली बातों को याद रखते हैं। हम इन अनुभवों को साधारणतः पुस्तकों से प्राप्त करते हैं। अतः ये अनुभव सब व्यक्तियों में समान होते हैं। 

3. स्थायी स्मृति Permanent Memory - इस स्मृति में हम याद की हुई बात को कभी नहीं भूलते हैं। यह स्मृति, बालकों की अपेक्षा वयस्कों में अधिक होती है।

4. तात्कालिक स्मृति : Immediate Memory - इस स्मृति में हम याद की हुई बात को तत्काल सुना देते हैं, पर हम उसको साधारणतः कुछ समय के बाद भूल जाते हैं। यह स्मृति सब व्यक्तियों में एक-सी नहीं होती है, और बालकों की अपेक्षा वयस्कों में अधिक होती है।

5. सक्रिय स्मृति: Active Memory - इस स्मृति में हमें अपने पिछले अनुभवों का पुनः स्मरण करने के लिए प्रयास करना पड़ता है। वर्णनात्मक निबन्ध लिखते समय छात्रों को उससे सम्बन्धित तथ्यों का स्मरण करने के लिए प्रयास करना पड़ता है।

6. निष्क्रिय स्मृति Passive Memory- इस स्मृति में हमें अपने पिछले अनुभवो का पुनः स्मरण करने में किसी प्रकार का प्रयास नहीं करना पड़ता है। पढ़ी हुई कहानी को सुनते समय छात्रों को उसकी घटनाएँ स्वतः याद आ जाती हैं। 

7. तार्किक स्मृति : Logical Memory - इस स्मृति में हम किसी बात को भली भाँति सोच-समझकर और तर्क करके स्मरण करते हैं। इस प्रकार प्राप्त किया जाने वाला ज्ञान वास्तविक होता है।

8. यान्त्रिक (रटन्स) स्मृति Rote Memory - इस स्मृति में हम किसी तथ्य को किसी प्रश्न के उत्तर को बिना सोचे समझे रटकर स्मरण करते हैं। पहाड़ों को याद करने और रटने की साधारण विधि यही है। है

9. आदत स्मृति : Habit Memory - इस स्मृति में हम किसी कार्य को बार-बार दोहरा कर और उसे आदत का रूप देकर स्मरण करते हैं। हम उसे जितनी अधिक बार दोहराते हैं, उतनी ही अधिक उसकी स्मृति हो जाती है।

10. शारीरिक स्मृति : Physiological Memory - इस स्मृति में हम अपने शरीर के किसी अंग या अंगों द्वारा किए जाने वाले कार्य को स्मरण रखते हैं। हमें उँगलियों से टाइप करना और हारमोनियम बजाना स्मरण रहता है। 

11. इन्द्रिय अनुभव Sense Impression Memory - इस स्मृति में हम इन्द्रियों का प्रयोग करके अतीत के अनुभवों को फिर स्मरण कर सकते हैं। हम बन्द आँखों से उन वस्तुओं को छूकर, चखकर या सूंघकर बता सकते हैं, जिनको हम जानते हैं। 

12. सच्ची या शुद्ध स्मृति True or Pure Memory - इस स्मृति में हम याद किये हुए तथ्यों का स्वतंत्र रूप से वास्तविक पुनः स्मरण कर सकते हैं। हम जो कुछ याद करते हैं, उसका हमें क्रमबद्ध ज्ञान रहता है। इसीलिए, इस स्मृति को सर्वोत्तम माना जाता है।

स्मृति के अंग

Factors of Memory

स्मृति एक जटिल मानसिक प्रक्रिया है। वुडवर्थ (Woodworth) के अनुसार, स्मृति या स्मरण को पूर्ण क्रिया के निम्नलिखित 4 अंग, पद या खंड होते हैं : -

(1) सीखना: Learning - स्मृति का पहला अंग है— सीखना। हम जिस बात को याद रखना चाहते हैं, उसको हमें सबसे पहले सीखना पड़ता है।

(2) धारण Retention - स्मृति का दूसरा अंग है-धारण। इसका है— सीखी हुई बात को मस्तिष्क में संचित रखना। हम जो बात सीखते हैं, वह कुछ समय के बा हमारे अवेतन में चली जाती है। वहाँ वह निष्क्रिय दशा में रहती है। इस दशा में वह कितने समय तक साचत रह सकती है, यह व्यक्ति की धारण शक्ति पर विशेष निर्भर रहता है। 

(3) पुनः स्मरण Recall - स्मृति का तीसरा अंग है-पुनः स्मरण इसका अर्थ है-सीखी हुई बात को अचेतन मन से चेतन मन में लाना। जो बात जितनी अच्छी तरह धारण की गई है, उतनी ही सरलता से उसका पुनः स्मरण होता है। पर ऐसा सदैव नहीं होता है। भय, चिन्ता, शीघ्रता, परेशानी आदि पुनः स्मरण में बाधा उपस्थित करते हैं। बालक भय के कारण भली-भांति स्मरण पाठ को अच्छी तरह नहीं सुना पाता है। हम जल्दी में बहुत से काम करना भूल जाते हैं।

(4) पहिचान: Recognition स्मृति का चौथा अंग है—पहिचान। इसका अर्थ - है-फिर याद आने वाली बात में किसी प्रकार की गलती न करना। उदाहरणार्थ- हम पाँच वर्ष पूर्व मोहनलाल नामक व्यक्ति से दिल्ली में मिले थे। जब हम उससे फिर मिलते हैं, तब उसके सम्बन्ध में सब बातों का ठीक-ठीक पुनःस्मरण हो जाता है। हम यह जानने में किसी प्रकार की गलती नहीं करते हैं कि वह कौन है, उसका क्या नाम है, हम उससे कब, कहाँ और क्यों मिले थे ? आदि 

अच्छी स्मृति के लक्षण 

Marks of Good Memory

जीवन में वही व्यक्ति सफलता के शिखर पर शीघ्र पहुँचता है जिसकी स्मृति अच्छी होती है। ऐसा व्यक्ति भूतकाल की घटनाओं का स्मरण कर, वर्तमान में उसका लाभ उठाकर,

भविष्य को अच्छा बनाता है। स्टाउट (Stout) के अनुसार, अच्छी स्मृति में निम्नलिखित गुण, लक्षण या विशेषताएँ होती हैं

1. शीघ्र अधिगम Quick Learning- अच्छी स्मृति का पहला गुण है-जल्दी •सीखना या याद होना। जो व्यक्ति किसी बात को शीघ्र सीख लेता है, उसकी स्मृति अच्छी समझी जाती है। 

2. उत्तम धारण-शक्ति Good Retention अच्छी स्मृति का दूसरा गुण है— सीखी हुई बात को बिना दोहराए हुए देर तक स्मरण रखना। जो व्यक्ति एक बात को जितने अधिक समय तक मस्तिष्क में धारण' रख सकता है, उसकी स्मृति उतनी ही अधिक अच्छी होती है। 

3. शीघ्र पुनः स्मरण Quick Recall अच्छी स्मृति का तीसरा गुण है— सीखी हुई बात का शीघ्र याद आना। जिस व्यक्ति को सीखी हुई बात जितनी जल्दी याद आती है, उसकी स्मृति उतनी ही अधिक अच्छी होती है।

4. शीघ्र पहचान Quick Recognition- अच्छी स्मृति का चौथा गुण है— शीघ्र पहचान। किसी बात का शीघ्र पुनःस्मरण ही पर्याप्त नहीं है। इसके साथ यह भी आवश्यक है कि आप शीघ्र ही यह जान जायें कि आप जिस बात को स्मरण करना चाहते हैं, वही बात आपको याद आई है।

5. अनावश्यक बातों की विस्मृति : Forgetting Useless Things अच्छी स्मृति का पांचवां गुण है-अनावश्यक या व्यर्थ की बातों को भूल जाना। यदि ऐसा नहीं है, तो मस्तिष्क को व्यर्थ में बहुत-सी ऐसी बातें स्मरण रखनी पड़ती हैं, जिनकी भविष्य में कभी आवश्यकता नहीं पड़ती है। वकील मुकदमे के समय उससे सम्बन्धित सब बातों को याद रखता है, पर उसके समाप्त हो जाने पर उसमें से अनावश्यक बातों को भूल जाता है।

6. उपयोगिता Serviceableness अच्छी स्मृति का अन्तिम गुण है उपयोगिता इसका अभिप्राय यह है कि वही स्मृति अच्छी होती है, जो अवसर आने पर उपयोगी सिद्ध होती है। यदि परीक्षा देते समय बालक स्मरण की हुई सब बातों को लिखने में सफल हो जाता है, तो उसकी स्मृति उपयोगी है, अन्यथा नहीं।

स्मृति के नियम

Laws of Memory

बी. एन. झा. का मत है : "स्मृति के नियम वे दशाएँ हैं जो अनुभव के पुनःस्मरण में सहायता देती हैं।"

"Laws of memory are conditions which facilitate revival of past experience."-Jha 

झा (Jha) के इस कथन का अभिप्राय है कि हम स्मृति के नियमों को 'स्मरण में सहायता देने वाले नियम' कह सकते हैं। झा (Jha) के अनुसार, ये नियम 3 हैं; यथा :

1. आदत का नियम Law of Habit - इस नियम के अनुसार, जब हम किसी - विचार को बार-बार दोहराते हैं, तब हमारे मस्तिष्क में उसकी छाप इतनी गहरी हो जाती है कि हम में बिना विचारे उसको व्यक्त करने की आदत पड़ जाती है। उदाहरणार्थ, बहुत से लोगों को अद्धे, पौने, ढइये आदि के पहाड़े रटे रहते हैं। इनको बोलते समय उनको अपनी विचार-शक्ति का प्रयोग नहीं करना पड़ता है। बी. एन. झा (B. N. Jha, p. 282) के शब्दों में : "इस नियम को लागू करने के लिए केवल मौखिक पुनरावृत्ति बहुत काफी है। इसका सम्बन्ध यांत्रिक स्मृति (Rote Memory) से है।"

2. निरन्तरता का नियम Law of Perseveration - इस नियम के अनुसार, सीखने की प्रक्रिया में जो अनुभव विशेष रूप से स्पष्ट होते हैं, वे हमारे मस्तिष्क में कुछ समय तक निरन्तर आते रहते हैं। अतः हमें उनको स्मरण रखने के लिए किसी प्रकार का प्रयत्न नहीं करना पड़ता है। उदाहरणार्थ, किसी मधुर संगीत को सुनने या किसी दर्दनाक घटना को देखने के बाद हम लाख प्रयत्न करने पर भी उसको भूल नहीं पाते हैं। कालिन्स व ड्रेवर के शब्दों में :- "निरन्तरता का नियम तात्कालिक स्मृति में महत्त्वपूर्ण कार्य करता है।"

3. परस्पर सम्बन्ध का नियम : Law of Association- इस नियम को 'साहचर्य का नियम' भी कहते हैं। इस नियम के अनुसार, जब हम एक अनुभव को दूसरे अनुभव से सम्बन्धित कर देते हैं तब उनमें से किसी एक का स्मरण होने पर हमें दूसरे का स्वयं ही स्मरण हो जाता है; उदाहरणार्थ, जो बालक गांधीजी के जीवन से परिचित हैं, उनको सत्याग्रह के सिद्धान्तों या 'भारत छोड़ो' आंदोलन से सरलतापूर्वक परिचित कराया जा सकता है। गाँधीजी के जीवन से इन घटनाओं का सम्बन्ध होने के कारण बालकों को एक घटना का स्मरण होने पर दूसरी घटना अपने आप याद आ जाती है। स्टर्ट एवं ओकडन (Sturt & Oakden,) के अनुसार :-"एक तथ्य और दूसरे तथ्यों में जितने अधिक सम्बन्ध स्थापित किये जाते हैं, उतनी ही अधिक सरलता से उस तथ्य का स्मरण होता है।"के बाद हम लाख प्रयत्न करने पर भी उसको भूल नहीं पाते हैं। कालिन्स व ड्रेवर के शब्दों में :- "निरन्तरता का नियम तात्कालिक स्मृति में महत्त्वपूर्ण कार्य करता है।"

4. विचार - साहचर्य का सिद्धान्त : Principle of Association of Ideas - विचार- साहचर्य' का सिद्धान्त अति प्रसिद्ध है। इसका अर्थ है-दो या अधिक विचारों का इस प्रकार सम्बन्ध कि उनमें से एक की याद आने पर दूसरे की स्वयं याद आना। उदाहरणार्थ, दूध फैल जाने पर बालक रोता है। वह पहले कभी दूध फैला चुका है जिसकी वजह से उस पर डाँट पड़ चुकी है और वह रो चुका है। अतः जब दुबारा दूध फैलता है, तब उसे डाँट पड़ने की अपने-आप याद आ जाती है और वह रोने लगता है। इस सिद्धान्त का स्पष्टीकरण करते हुए भाटिया ने लिखा है :-"विचार-साहचर्य एक प्रसिद्ध सिद्धान्त है, जिसके अनुसार एक विचार किसी दूसरे विचार या विचारों का, जिनका हम पहले अनुभव कर चुके हैं, स्मरण दिलाता है।"

स्मरण करने की विधियाँ

Methods of Memorizing 

मनोवैज्ञानिकों ने स्मरण करने की ऐसी अनेक विधियों की खोज की है, जिनका प्रयोग करने से समय की बचत होती है। इनमें से अधिक महत्त्वपूर्ण निम्नांकित है :

1. पूर्ण विधि : Whole Method - इस विधि में याद किए जाने वाले पूरे पाठ को आरम्भ से अन्त तक बार-बार पढ़ा जाता है। यह विधि केवल छोटे और सरल पाठों या कविताओं के ही लिए उपयुक्त है।

2. खण्ड विधि : Part Method - इस विधि में याद किए जाने वाले पाठ को कई खण्डों या भागों में बाँट दिया जाता है। इसके बाद उन खण्डों को एक-एक करके याद किया जाता है। इस विधि का दोष यह है कि आगे के खण्ड याद होते जाते हैं और पीछे के भूलते जाते हैं। 

3. मिश्रित विधि : Mixed Method - इस विधि में पूर्ण और खण्ड विधियों का साथ-साथ प्रयोग किया जाता है। इसमें पहले पूरे पाठ को आरम्भ से अन्त तक पढ़ा जाता है। फिर उसे खण्डों में बाँटकर, उनको याद किया जाता है। अन्त में, पूरे पाठ को आरम्भ से अन्त तक फिर पढ़ा जाता है। यह विधि कुछ सीमा तक पूर्ण और खंड विधियों से अच्छी है।

4. प्रगतिशील विधि : Progressive Method - इस विधि में पाठ को अनेक खण्डों में विभाजित कर लिया जाता है। सर्वप्रथम, पहले खण्ड को याद किया जाता है, उसके बाद पहले और दूसरे खण्ड को साथ-साथ याद किया जाता है। फिर पहले, दूसरे और तीसरे खण्ड को याद किया जाता है। इसी प्रकार, जैसे-जैसे स्मरण करने के कार्य में प्रगति होती जाती है, वैसे-वैसे एक नया खण्ड जोड़ दिया जाता है। इस विधि का दोष यह है कि इसमें पहला खण्ड सबसे अधिक स्मरण किया जाता है और उसके बाद के क्रमशः कम ।

5. अन्तरयुक्त विधि : Spaced Method - इस विधि में पाठ को थोड़े-थोड़े अन्तर या अनय के बाद याद किया जाता है। यह अन्तर एक मिनट का भी हो सकता है और चौबीस घण्टे का भी। यह विधि 'स्थायी स्मृति' (Permanent Memory) के लिए अति उत्तम है। वुडवर्थ का मत है : अन्तरयुक्त विधि से स्मरण करने में सर्वोनम परिणाम होता है ।

6. अन्तरहीन विधि :  Unspaced Method - इस विधि में पाठ को स्मरण करने के के लिए समय में अन्तर नहीं किया जाता है। यह विधि 'अन्तरयुक्त विधि' की उल्टी है और उससे अधिक प्रभावशाली है।

7. सक्रिय विधि : Active Method - इस विधि में स्मरण किये जाने वाले पाठ को बोल-बोलकर याद किया जाता है। यह विधि छोटे बच्चों के लिए अच्छी है, क्योंकि इससे हैं उनका उच्चारण ठीक हो जाता है।

8. निष्क्रिय विधि : Passive Method - यह विधि, 'सक्रिय विधि' की उल्टी है। इसमें स्मरण किए जाने वाले पाठ को बिना बोले मन-ही-मन याद किया जाता है। यह विधि अधिक आयु वाले बालकों के लिए अच्छी है।

9. स्वर विधि : Recitation Method - इस विधि में याद किए जाने वाले पाठ को लय से पढ़ा जाता है। यह विधि छोटे बच्चों के लिए उपयोगी है, क्योंकि उनको गा-गाकर पढ़ने में आनन्द आता है।

10. रटने की विधि : Method of Cramming - इस विधि में पूरे पाठ को रट लिया जाता है। इस विधि का दोष बताते हुए जेम्स ने लिखा है :- इस विधि से जो बातें स्मरण कर ली जाती हैं, वे अधिकांश रूप में शीघ्र ही विस्मृत हो जाती हैं।"

11. निरीक्षण विधि : Method of Observing - इस विधि में याद किए जाने वाले पाठ का पहले भली प्रकार निरीक्षण या अवलोकन कर लिया जाता है। यदि बालक को संख्याओं की कोई सूची याद करनी है, तो वह पहले इस बात का निरीक्षण कर ले कि ये निश्चित क्रम में हैं। इस विधि के उचित प्रयोग के विषय में वुडवर्थ  ने लिखा है :- "पाठ को एक बार पढ़ने के बाद उसकी रूपरेखा को और दूसरी कर उसकी विषय-वस्तु को विस्तार से याद करना चाहिए।"

12. क्रिया-विधि : Method of Learning by Doing- इस विधि में स्मरण की जाने वाली बात को साथ-साथ किया भी जाता है। यह विधि बालक की अनेक ज्ञानेन्द्रियों कोएक साथ सक्रिय रखती है। अतः उसे पाठ सरलता और शीघ्रता से स्मरण हो जाता है।

13. विचार- साहचर्य की विधि : Method of Association of Ideas - इस विधि में स्मरण की जाने वाली बातों का ज्ञात बातों से भिन्न प्रकार से सम्बन्ध स्थापित कर लिया जाता है। ऐसा करने से स्मरण शीघ्रता से होता है और स्मरण की हुई बात बहुत समय तक याद रहती है। जेम्स  का मत है :-"विचार, साहचर्य उत्तम चितर द्वारा उत्तम स्मरण की विधि है।"

14. साभिप्राय स्मरण विधि : Method of Intentional Memorizing - पाठ को याद करने के लिए चाहे जिस विधि का प्रयोग किया जाये, पर यदि बालक उसको याद करने संकल्प या निश्चय नहीं करता है, तो उसको पूर्ण सफलता नहीं मिलती है। वुडवर्थ ने ठीक है लिखा है :-"यदि कोई भी बात याद की जानी है, तो याद करने का निश्वय आवश्यक है। The will to learn is necessary, if any learning is to accomplished."--Woodworth