प्रशासन एवं शैक्षिक प्रशासन

प्रशासन एवं शैक्षिक प्रशासन 

Administration and Educational Administration 

अवधारणा (concept)

"शैक्षिक प्रबन्ध एक ऐसी सेवा करने वाली गतिविधि है, जिसके माध्यम से शैक्षिक प्रक्रिया के लक्ष्य प्रभावकारी ढंग से प्राप्त किए जा सकते हैं।"(Educational Management is a Service activity through with the objective of educational process effectively realised.)

प्रशासन से अभिप्राय (Meaning of Administration)

'प्रशासन' मूल रूप में संस्कृत का शब्द है। यह 'प्र'  उपसर्ग शास् धातु से आप बना है। इसका अर्थ है प्रकृष्ट या उत्कृष्ट रीति से शासन करना। आजकल शासन का अभिप्राय 'सरकार' से समझा जाता है, किन्तु इसका वास्तविक पुराना अर्थ निर्दश  देना, पथ-प्रदर्शन करना, आदेश या आज्ञा देना है। वैदिक युग में प्रशासन का प्रयोग इसी अर्थ में होता था। उस समय सोमादि यज्ञों में मुख्य पुरोहित अन्य सहायक पुरोहितों को यक्ष को सामग्री तथा अन्य कार्यों के बारे में आवश्यक निर्देश एवं आदेश देने का कार्य किया करते थे, उसे प्रशास्ता कहा जाता था। बाद में यह शासन कार्य में निर्देश देने वाले संचालक और राजा के लिए प्रयुक्त होने लगा।

'प्रशासन' की भाँति इसके लिए अंग्रेजी में 'एडमिनिस्ट्रेशन' (Administration) शब्द का प्रयोग किया जाता है। यह मूलतः 'एड' (Ad) उपसर्गपूर्वक सेवा करने का अर्थ देने वाली लेटिन की धातु 'Ministrere' से बना है। इसका मूल अभिप्राय एक व्यक्ति के द्वारा दूसरे व्यक्ति के हित की दृष्टि से उसको सेवा का कोई कार्य करना है, जैसे पादरी द्वारा किसी व्यक्ति को धार्मिक लाभ पहुंचाने के लिए धार्मिक संस्कार करना, न्यायाधीश द्वारा न्याय करना, डॉक्टर द्वारा बीमार को दवाई देना।  शब्दकोष के अनुसार 'प्रशासन' शब्द का अर्थ है 'कार्यों का प्रबन्ध करना अथवा लोगों की देखभाल करना।' एनसाइक्लोपीडिया ब्रिटानिका में प्रशासन शब्द की व्याख्या इस प्रकार की गयी है कि "यह कार्यों के प्रबन्ध अथवा उनको पूर्ण करने की एक क्रिया है।"

प्रशासन' का अर्थ प्रकृष्ट रीति से शासित अथवा अनुशासित करता है। इसका यह अभिप्राय है कि इस क्रिया में अनेक व्यक्तियों को विशिष्ट अनुशासन में रखते हुए उनसे एक निश्चित उद्देश्य की पूर्ति के लिए कार्य कराया जाता है। इससे यह स्पष्ट हो जाता है कि प्रशासन एक से अधिक व्यक्तियों द्वारा विशेष उद्देश्य की पूर्ति के लिए सहयोगी ढंग से किया जाने वाला कार्य है। प्रशासन के लिए अनेक व्यक्तियों का सहयोग, संगठन और सामाजिक हित का उद्देश्य अवश्य होना चाहिए।

साइमन के अनुसार, "अपने व्यापक रूप से प्रशासन की व्याख्या उन समस्त सामूहिक क्रियाओं से की जा सकती है जो सामान्य लक्ष्य की प्राप्ति के लिए सहयोगात्मक रूप में प्रस्तुत की जाती है।"

मार्क्स के अनुसार, “प्रशासन चैतन्य उद्देश्य की प्राप्ति के लिए निश्चयात्मक क्रिया है। यह उन वस्तुओं के एक संगठित प्रयत्न तथा साधनों का निश्चित प्रयोग है जिसको कि हम कार्यान्वित करवाना चाहते हैं।"

ब्रिटेनिका ऐनसाइक्लोपीडिया (Britainica Encyclopedia) के अनुसार- "Administration = Ad+ Minister अर्थात् कार्यों का निष्पादन एवं प्रबंधन करना।"

सी०वी० गुड (C.V. Good) के शब्दों में- “प्रशासन का तात्पर्य उन सभी तकनीकों एवं प्रक्रियाओंसे है जो निर्धारित नीतियों के अनुरूप किसी वैज्ञानिक संगठन के संचालन में प्रयुक्त की जाती हैं।"

रायबर्न (Rayburn) के अनुसार — “प्रशासन केवल व्यवस्थाओं, समय-तालिकाओं, कार्य-योजना, भवन का प्रकार, अभिलेखों आदि से सम्बन्धित नहीं है, बल्कि यह हमारे कार्य करने के दृष्टिकोण और बच्चों (जिनके साथ हम कार्य करते हैं) से सम्बन्धित है "

निगरों के अनुसार- "प्रशासन लक्ष्य की प्राप्ति के लिए मनुष्य तथा सामग्री दोनों का संगठन है।"

व्हाइट के अनुसार, "प्रशासन किसी विशिष्ट उद्देश्य अथवा लक्ष्य की प्राप्ति के लिए बहुत से व्यक्तियों के सम्बन्ध में निर्देश, नियन्त्रण तथा समन्वयीकरण की कला है। "

 लुथर गुलिक के अनुसार, "प्रशासन का सम्बन्ध कार्यों को सम्पन्न कराने से है जिससे कि निर्धारित लक्ष्य पूरा हो सके।"

शैक्षिक प्रशासन का अर्थ एवं परिभाषा

(Meaning and Definition of Education Administration)

शैक्षिक प्रशासन का अर्थ- शैक्षिक (विद्यालय) प्रशासन एक मानवीय प्रक्रिया है। शिक्षा का समुचित प्रबन्ध करना ही विद्यालय प्रशासन या शैक्षिक प्रशासन कहलाता है।

शिक्षा प्रशासन का अभिप्राय शिक्षा के प्रशासन से ही है। आधुनिक युग में शिक्षा का क्षेत्र अत्यन्त व्यापक हो गया है। शिक्षा पर सम्पूर्ण राष्ट्र के विकास का उत्तरदायित्व है। शिक्षा एक गतिशील प्रक्रिया है और इसका सम्बन्ध मानव विकास के लिए किये जाने वाले मानवीय प्रयासों से होता है। अतः शिक्षा का प्रसार तथा उससे मिलने वाला लाभ शिक्षा प्रशासन के अभिकरणों को कुशलता तथा गतिशीलता पर निर्भर करता है। विश्व में प्रजातांत्रिक तथा एकतान्त्रिक शासन प्रचलित है। जैसी इन शासनों की प्रकृति है, वैसे ही शैक्षिक प्रशासन की प्रकृति भी होती है। शिक्षा के समस्त पक्ष ऐसे ही मूल आधारों से प्रभावित होते हैं। शैक्षिक प्रशासन को आज केवल शिक्षा की व्यवस्था करना ही नहीं समझा जाता अपितु शिक्षा के सम्बन्ध में योजना बनाना, संगठन पर ध्यान देना, निर्देशन तथा पर्यवेक्षण आदि अनेक कार्यों से गहरा सम्बन्ध है। वास्तव में शैक्षिक प्रशासन का मुख्य उद्देश्य शिक्षा के उद्देश्यों की प्राप्ति करना है।

शैक्षिक प्रशासन के अन्तर्गत विद्यालय के विधिवत संचालन के थे सभी कार्य समाविष्ट होते हैं जिनमें प्रबन्ध, नियन्त्रण, व्यवस्था, पर्यवेक्षण एवं निर्देशन आदि आते हैं। इसमें योजना बनाना, प्रशासकीय कार्यवाही को निश्चित करना, सम्बन्धित कार्यकर्त्ताओं तथा विद्यार्थियों को आवश्यक सुविधाएँ एवं प्रोत्साहित उपलब्ध कराना, आवश्यक अभिलेख रखना, विद्यार्थी स्वशासन का संचालन करना, योग्यता के अनुसार कार्य का विभाजन करना, उनके कार्य आदि का समायोजन करना, विद्यालय और समाज के मध्य सहयोगपूर्ण सम्बन्ध स्थापित करना आदि प्रवृत्तियों का समावेश होता है। अतः विद्यालय प्रशासन को निम्न प्रकार से परिभाषित किया जा सकता है-

"शैक्षिक प्रशासन यह प्रक्रिया है जिसके द्वारा शैक्षिक कार्य में लगे कार्यकत्ताओं के प्रयासों में समन्वय एवं सामंजस्य स्थापित किया जाता है। उपयुक्त साज-सज्जा का इस प्रकार उपयोग किया जाता है कि जिससे मानवोचित गुणों का प्रभावशाली ढंग से विकास हो सके, ताकि वे राष्ट्र की आकांक्षा एवं आशा के योग्य बन सकें।"

 शैक्षिक प्रशासन की या शिक्षा प्रशासन की परिभाषाएँ-

पाल आर मोर्ट- "शिक्षा प्रशासन वह प्रभाव है, जो वांछित लक्ष्यों के सन्दर्भ में छात्रों को प्रभावित करता है, इसमें वह अन्य मानव समुदाय का उपयोग करता है, और शिक्षक इस कार्य में अभिकर्ता होता है। तीसरे समूह यानि जनता के लिये वह विभिन्न लक्ष्यों की पूर्ति हेतु कार्य करता है।"

केन्डल के शब्दो मे -"मूल रूप से शैक्षिक प्रशासन का उद्देश्य यही है तथा छात्रों को ऐसी परिस्थिति में एक साथ लाया जाए जिससे अधिकतम रूप से सफलतापूर्वक शिक्षा के उद्देश्यों को प्राप्त किया जा सके।"

एडम्स बुक के अनुसार, " प्रशासन वह क्षमता है जो अनेक प्रकार की संघर्षमयो सामाजिक शक्ति को एक संगठन में इस प्रकार सुन्दर ढंग से व्यवस्थित करता है जिससे वह एक सम्पूर्ण इकाई के रूप में क्रियाशील हो।"

ग्रेशम कैकूर के शब्दों में, "शिक्षा प्रशासन वह राजनीति सत्ता है जब दीर्घकालीन नीतियों तथा लक्ष्यों को निर्धारित कर दिये गये नीति नियमों के अनुकूल प्रशासन के मार्गदर्शन में दिन-प्रतिदिन लक्ष्य प्राप्ति हेतु समस्या को हल किया जाता है।"

ग्राहम वालफोर के अनुसार, "शिक्षा प्रशासन सही छात्रों को, सही शिक्षा, सही शिक्षकों से प्राप्त करने योग्य बनाता है। यह कार्य वह राज्य के साधनों की क्षमता के अनुसार करता है और छात्र इसका लाभ अपने प्रशिक्षण के दौरान उठाता है।"

जे. बी. सीयर्स के मतानुसार, "शिक्षा में प्रशासन शब्द सरकार से सम्बन्धित है। इससे सम्बन्धित शब्द अधीक्षक, पर्यवेक्षण, नियोजन, अनावधान, दिशा संगठन, नियन्त्रण, मार्गदर्शन एवं नियमन है।"

इन सभी परिभाषाओं से यह तो स्पष्ट हो जाता है कि शिक्षा प्रशासन, शिक्षा संस्थाओं के कुशल संचालन का तंत्र है। इस तंत्र में नीति नियमों के अनुपालन द्वारा वांछित लक्ष्य प्राप्त किये जाते हैं। उक्त परिभाषाओं का निष्कर्ष इस प्रकार प्रस्तुत किया जा सकता है-

(1) शिक्षा से सम्बन्धित सभी क्रियाओं एवं साधनों के सम्पूर्ण उपयोग, संगठन आदेश, जन सहयोग के द्वारा वांछित लक्ष्य प्राप्त करने में शिक्षा प्रशासन सहयोग देता है।

(2) शिक्षा विकास के पथ पर ले जाती है।

(3) शिक्षा प्रशासन, शिक्षा सम्बन्धी सभी प्रयासों एवं संस्थाओं को संगठित करने का प्रयास है। 

(4) शिक्षा प्रशासन का सम्बन्ध विभिन्न व्यक्तियों, शिक्षकों छात्रों, अभिभावकों, जनता के प्रयासों को समन्वित करने से है।

(5) शिक्षा के उद्देश्यों को प्राप्त करने में शिक्षा प्रशासन सहायक है।

शैक्षिक प्रशासन के लक्ष्य या उद्देश्य

(Aim of Education or Administration) 

उद्देश्य या लक्ष्य के विषय में लिखते हुए जॉन डीवी ने कहा है, कि "उद्देश्य के अन्तर्गत व्यवस्थापूर्ण गतिशीलता होती है, जिसे क्रिया द्वारा प्राप्त किया जाता है। इसके लिये हम क्रियाशील होते हैं।"

 इस सम्बन्ध एनसर्ट ने कहा है, "उद्देश्य वह बिन्दु है, जिसकी दिशा में कार्य किया जाता है। लक्ष्य या उद्देश्य को क्रिया द्वारा प्राप्त व्यवस्थित परिवर्तन भी कहते हैं।"

 इस दृष्टि से उद्देश्यों को रचना इसलिये की जाती है- 

(1) कार्य के दिशा निर्धारण हेतु, 

(2) कार्य में निश्चितता तथा सार्थकता हेतु, 

(3) समयबद्धता हेतु, 

(4) संभाव्य कठिनाइयों के निवारण हेतु, 

(5) वांछित परिणाम हेतु ।

 शैक्षिक प्रशासन का मुख्य लक्ष्य उन उद्देश्यों का निर्माण एवं प्राप्ति के प्रयास करना है, जो अच्छे नागरिक होने के लिये आवश्यक है। प्रशासन के उद्देश्यों का निर्धारण किसी प्रयोजन के लिये किया जाता है।

(1) बच्चों के सर्वागीण विकास के लिए उचित वातावरण तैयार करना—शैक्षिक प्रशासन शिक्षा सम्बन्धी कार्यों को सम्पन्न कराता है। शिक्षा के क्षेत्र में कार्यरत व्यक्तियों की सहायता करता है। इन सब के साथ-साथ शैक्षिक प्रशासन बच्चों के लिए ऐसा वातावरण तैयार करता है, जिसमें बालक का सम्पूर्ण विकास सम्भव हो सके। इस सन्दर्भ में कॅण्डल (Kandal) महोदय का मत है- "मूलतः शैक्षिक प्रशासन का उद्देश्य यह है कि अध्यापकों तथा छात्रों को ऐसी परिस्थितियों में एक-साथ लाया जाए जिससे की शिक्षा के उद्देश्य अधिक सफलतापूर्वक प्राप्त हो सकें।" "Fundamentally the purpose of educational administration is to bring pupils and teachers under such conditions as will more successfully promote the end of education."इस प्रकार आवश्यक साधन और सामग्री एकत्र करके उचित वातावरण बनाना शैक्षिक प्रशासन का प्रमुख उद्देश्य है।

(2) शैक्षिक प्रशासन का उद्देश्य है कि शिक्षा के क्षेत्र में कार्यरत व्यक्तियों को उनके उत्तरदायित्व का ज्ञान कराया जाए, बालक के व्यक्तित्व का विकास किया जाए और प्रत्येक व्यक्ति को उसकी क्षमता के अनुरूप कार्य करने के अवसर उपलब्ध कराए जाएं। इस दृष्टि से शैक्षिक प्रशासन प्रत्येक स्तर पर शैक्षिक कार्यक्रम, क्रियाकलाप और अन्य गतिविधियों का सुचारु रूप से संचालन करता है और कर्मचारियों की नियुक्ति, सेवा शर्ते तथा उनके प्रशिक्षण का निर्धारण करता है ताकि शिक्षा की सही दिशा में प्रगति हो सके। सही शिक्षा के सन्दर्भ में ग्राहम बैलफोर महोदय (Sir Graham Balfour) का मत है- "शैक्षिक प्रशासन का उद्देश्य सही बालकों को सही शिक्षकों द्वारा राज्य के सीमित साधनों के अन्तर्गत उपलब्ध व्यय से सही शिक्षा ले।

(3) शिक्षा को उत्पादन का साधन बनाना- शैक्षिक प्रशासन शिक्षा को उत्पादन का साधन बनाने में सहायता करता है। फलस्वरूप किसी संस्था के छात्रों की  संख्या में  वृद्धि होती है।

(4) शिक्षा को सुनिश्चित योजना और सुनियोजित रूप प्रदान करना—शैक्षिक प्रशासन शिक्षा को सुनियोजित रूप प्रदान करने में सहायता करता है। यह सुनिश्चित योजना का निर्माण करता है ताकि शिक्षा समाज के अनुरूप संचालित हो सके और राज्य एवं सरकार की शिक्षा नीतियों का क्रियान्वयन सही रूप में हो सके। सुनियोजन के सन्दर्भ में आर्थर वी० मोहिल्मन (Arthur B. Mohilman) का कथन है— "शिक्षा का कार्य निश्चित संगठन अथवा सुनिश्चित योजना, विधियों, व्यक्तियों तथा आर्थिक साधनों के माध्यम से चलना चाहिए।" "Education must function through a definite organization or structure of plans,procedures, personnel, material, plant and finance. "

(5) शिक्षा की आवश्यकताओं के अनुरूप निर्णय लेना एवं शिक्षा सम्बन्धी नीतियों का निर्धारण तथा क्रियान्वयन करना— शैक्षिक प्रशासन का उद्देश्य है कि  महोदय सीयर्स ( B. Seares) का कथन है- "प्रत्येक प्रशासनिक निर्णय तथा प्रत्येक कार्य शैक्षिक आवश्यकताओं के अनुरूप लेना अत्यन्त आवश्यक है।""

(6) प्रजातान्त्रिक दृष्टिकोण विकसित करना—शैक्षिक प्रशासन का उद्देश्य छात्रों एवं कर्मचारियों क में श्रेष्ठ नागरिकता, धर्म-निरपेक्षता एवं समानता की भावना का विकास करना है। यह भावना प्रजातान्त्रिक दृष्टिकोण का विकास करती है तथा शिक्षण संस्थाओं के व्यक्तियों में पारम्परिक सहयोग और स्वशासन क प्रशिक्षण प्रदान करती है। शिक्षा के नवीन उद्देश्यों, मूल्यों, मान्यताओं, सिद्धान्तों आदि के साथ सामंजस्य स्थापित की करती है। इस प्रकार यह दृष्टिकोण शिक्षा सम्बन्धी नवीन उत्तरदायित्वों को स्वीकार करना तथा उनका उचित निर्वाह करने के लिए तैयार करता है ताकि जनतन्त्रीय व्यवस्था सफल हो सके। प्रजातन्त्र के सन्दर्भ में के०जी० सैयदेन महोदय का मत है— आज के युग में विद्यालय को प्रजातन्त्र के सिद्धान्तों के अनुसार चलाया जाना चाहिए। यदि यह सिद्धान्त ही ओझल हो गया तो प्रशासन तथा निरीक्षण का महत्त्व ही समाप्त हो जाता है।"

(7) छात्रों की रुचियों एवं अभिवृत्तियों में परिवर्तन लाना - शैक्षिक प्रशासन का कार्य केवल समय प विभाग चक्र बनाना ही नहीं है अपितु छात्रों की अभिवृत्तियों में परिवर्तन लाना भी है। इस सन्दर्भ में पी०सी० रेन (P. C. Ren) महोदय का कथन है- "शैक्षिक प्रशासन का उद्देश्य छात्रों के लाभ हेतु विद्यालय बनाने, उनकी अन्तर्निहित है क्षमताओं को प्रशिक्षित करने, उनका मानसिक विकास एवं दृष्टिकोण व्यापक बनाना है। यह छात्रों को स्वयं के प्रति है समुदाय और राज्य के प्रति कर्तव्यपरायण बनाता है और वारित्रिक विकास कर स्वास्थ्य एवं शक्ति प्रदान करता है।"

Aims of Education in Contemporary Indian Society

Aims of Education in Contemporary Indian Society

Indian education has the following aims at present :

(1) Physical development.

(2) Mental development.

(3) Individual and social development and leadership education.

(4) Development of cultural tolerance. 

(5) Moral and character development.

(6) Vocational development.

(7) Education for democracy and democratic citizenship. 

(8) Population education, environmental education, modernisation of the country, national integration and international understanding, and

(9) Development of religious tolerance.

We shall now present the four aims of education which are democracy, socialism, secularism and national values:

1. Education of Democracy: At one time, there was monarchy in the world. In 1789, a revolution occurred in France against the than prevalent government system and in favour of the demand for freedom, equality and brotherhood. This revolution gave forth a new system of governance called democracy. Generally, by democracy is meant that system in which the administration of the state is run by their elected representatives, and not run by a particular individual. At present, there is so much of variation in the democratic system of different countries that it becomes difficult define it in a uniform statement. However, there also exists a similarity, and that remember the fact that it is based on three principles of freedom, equality and brotherhood the Indian democracy, three more principles have been added which are socialism, secularism and justice. Therefore, Indian democracy can be defined as follows:  Indian democracy is that political system in which the government is run by the people elected by the people, and which is based on the six principles of freedom, equality, brotherhood, socialism, secularism and justice.

Now, the moot point is how should children be educated in democracy For it, it becomes incumbent that right from the beginning, the following should be realized :

(1) The entire environment and working system of the schools should be democratic.

(2) There should be freedom of thought and freedom of expression for children in the schools, though without causing interference to others freedom. 

(3) The individuality of all children should be respected in schools, they should not be discriminated on grounds of caste, religion, economic status or sex all of them should be meted out equal treatment.

(4) There should prevail the spirit of "we' among managers, principals, teachers and other staff members of the schools, they should all behave themselves with others with love, sympathy and cooperation; and all of them should endeavour for the progress of the schools.

(5) Children of all castes, religions and economic statuses should be admitted in the schools; and all of them should be given opportunities for progress and advancement.

(6) Children should not be discriminated on grounds of religion in schools, they should not be forced for education of a particular religion, and religious tolerance should be cultivated in them.

(7) All rules formed in the schools should be founded on the basic spirit of democracy, they should be same for all, and the children should be treated as per these rules.

2. Development of Socialistic Viewpoint: Socailism is one of the six principles of our democracy. In India, socialism has a different connotation. At present, socialism is the democratic system of governance in the country. Our democracy is opposed to any class distinction on grounds of caste, religion and sex etc. It is also opposed to the class distinction between the rich and the poor, however, it does not support any violent struggle for eradication of capitalism. It supports the principle of Sarvodaya as propounded by Gandhiji, and believes in eradication of class distinction through peaceful means. 

Thus Indian socialism is that socialism based on democratic principles and Gandhiji's Sarvodaya philosophy which does not distinguish between individual and individual on grounds of caste, religion and economic status etc., and supports peaceful means to remove economic disparity in place of using power and violent activity.

Now, the moot point is how to achieve this aim of education, and how socialist viewpoint can be cultivated in children. For this, the following become essential:

(1) The entire form of schools should be democratic. 

(2) Individuality of children should be respected in schools.

(3) No discrimination should be practised against children on any grounds of caste, religion, economic status or sex etc., all should be treated equally. 

(4) All children in schools should be provided with equal opportunities for their development.

(5) Students should not be exploited in schools, in any way at any level and under any circumstances.

(6) There should be a specific dress for students in schools.

(7) In schools, at least in primary and upper primary schools, all students should have midday meals together. 

3. Cultivation of Spirit of Secularism:  At present, we have a democratic system of government in our country. Democracy does not discriminate between man and man on grounds of caste, religion, sex etc., in its essence, it is unbiased so far as caste, culture, religion and sex are concerned. However, in order to eradicate the disputes arising in the name of religion, the 42nd Constitutional Amendment in 1976 added the word 'secularism' to the preamble of the Constitution of India in order to further explain the spirit of secularism. Under the Constitution, the Parliament does not have the right to make any particular religion as the state religion, nor can it force any religion on people, nor can it take a religion as the basis for making a national law. This fact has been repeated in several articles of the Constitution in diverse ways. 

Thus Secularism, in Indian context, means that the state will not be based on any religion directly or indirectly, and it will not discriminate people on grounds of religion: people will have freedom to profess and propagate their religions without interfering in other religions. 

The moot point is how this aim of education can be achieved, how the spint of secularism can be inculcated in children. For this, the following become essential :

(1) The schools should not be based on any particular religion; education of any particular religion should not be forced on the students in the schools.

(2) No discrimination should be exercised in schools in the name of religion. 

(3) The Government of India speaks of religion-less education in the name of secularism, yet in our view, the life stories of the chief proponents of the main religions should be included in the language textbooks at the upper primary level, as Mahavir, Buddha, Christ, Muhammad and Swami Dayananda. This will help develop religious tolerance and secularis.

(4) The government prohibits religious education in schools in the name of secularism, yet in our view, there should be a provision for instruction of basic principles of all chief religions of the world, especially those of India, but it should not be forced. This will help develop religious tolerance and secularism. 

(5) The school galleries should be decorated with the proponents of chief religions of the world. This will help cultivate religious tolerance and secularism.

4. Cultivation of National Values: By value is meant utility, desirability. importance. Generally, the ideals and principles that are accepted in a society are called the values of that society. However, in reality, the sense of value is somewhat different from this. We are aware that each society has its own culture as well as its own beliefs, ideals, principles, moral laws and behaviour norms, and people of the society attach importance to them according to their likes and dislikes, and they determine their behaviour on the basis of these. Thus, the beliefs, ideals, moral laws and behaviour norms are not values by themselves, rather when people of a society start to attach importance to them, and behave themselves according to them, they become the values of the society. 

In other words : The beliefs, ideals, principles, moral laws and behaviour norms of any society which are attached importance by the people and by which their behaviour is directed and controlled, are the values of that society and/or its people.

Now let us consider national values in place of social values. At present, we have the democratic system of government, and it is based on six basic principles: freedom, equality, fraternity, socialism, secularism and justice. Our nation believes in these principles, and determines its behaviour on the basis of these principles, and each individual of the nation is expected to behave himself on the bases of these principles.

The basic principles of the nation: freedom, equality, fraternity, socialism, secularism and justice by which the behaviour of the citizens is guided and controlled are our national values.

This signifies the following :

(1) Children should be given freedom to think and express themselves in schools. 

(2) All children should be considered equal in the schools, they should be treated equally. 

(3) All children should be treated with love, sympathy and cooperation in school attachment should be displayed for all. 

(4) In schools, children should not be discriminated on the basis of caste, religion economic status, sex etc., and they should be respected and treated equally 

(5) There should be a uniform dress and rules for all children in schools, and should be mandatory for all to abide by them. 

(6) No religious education should be imparted in schools by force.

(7) When children start to behave themselves according to national value knowingly or unknowingly, they should be given clear knowledge of nation values and the same should be linked with their sentiments, and they should be trained to determine and display their behaviour on the bases of these value This work can be undertaken at the secondary level; it is the time when children possess logic and power to distinguish between right and wrong.

Meaning, Definition and Need of Definite Aims of Education, Main Aims of Education

Aims of Education in Contemporary Indian Society

Meaning and Definition of Aims of Education

Man is a progressive being. He wants to advance and rise at all times. Whatever he wants to achieve in his life, its ideal condition is called the aim. This ideal condition a cannot be defined in limits. Aim indicates an ideal condition which cannot be limited to It has the same meaning in the field of education, it indicates towards a higher direction o that is, such an ideal situations which cannot be limited. We can define it as follows :

An aim of education is such a statement which indicates an ideal condition of desirable change, such an ideal condition which cannot be bound in limits. 

Distinction between Aims and Objectives

Though aim and objective are synonym, but they are related with each other c as whole and part. An aim indicates an ideal condition, such ideal condition which o cannot be bound in limits. On the contrary, an objective has specified limit, it is achievable in itself. Generally, several objectives are determined for the achievement of an aim, and these objectives are realized for the achievement of that aim. 

Need of Definite Aims of Education

Education is a social process that goes on lifelong. By it a society acquaints its members by its previously acquired civilization and culture and enables them to effect continuous development in their civilization and culture. If the society has not a clear picture before itself what it has to teach to its next generation and what it has not to teach, its education cannot be run properly. The provision of formal education is done for the achievement of specified aims. In the absence of specified and clear aims this education cannot be imagined. Aimless education is meaningless in itself. The need of definite aims of education is evident from the following factors:

1. Provision of Formal Education 

2. Provision of Curriculum and Teaching Methods

3. Operation of Education Properly

4. Enthusiasm in Vigour

5. Utilization of Time and Energy

Main Aims of Education

The real fact is that there are no aims of education in itself, the aims of a society are the aims of education too. Because the aims of different societies are different, so the aims of their education too are different. Not only this, but they continue to change with the time and place. It is obvious that they cannot be limited. So, they cannot be analysed separately. Of course, they can be put in certain general classes We have attempted to classify the aims of education of any society or country under the nine headings, and have also endeavoured to analyse the changes that occur in them due to change in time and place

[I] Physical Development 

Physical development is the universal and perennial aim of education. It is another thing that it has been accepted in different forms in different societies at different times. For example, materialistic societies consider the body as an end, they believe that healthy body is the first pleasure. On the contrary, spiritualistic societies consider the body as a means; they believe that the healthy body is the means for higher meditation and self-realization.

At present in the field of education, by physical development of the children is meant strengthening the muscles and different organs of the body of the children, development and training of their organs of action and perception and development and sublimation of their instincts. For it, asanas, exercises and sports are arranged, they are given the opportunities or the use of their sense organs, they are taught the methods to keep away to diseases, and they are made aware for proper diagnosis and treatment in case of becoming ill.

[II] Mental Development

This is also a universal and perennial aim of education, but it has been taken in different forms by different people. In ancient India, by mental development was meant enhancement of knowledge. There was a time when the slogan of 'knowledge for knowledge' was given in our country. The similar tale can be seen in other countries too In the present times, the educationists who believe in faculty psychology take mental development as the development of these faculties such as memory, observation, imagination and reasoning of the children. Some scholars consider the development of reasoning as mental development while some others include intellectual development in it. Intellect is the power of taking decision of true and false by reasoning on the basis of clear knowledge and experience. It has given forth the slogan of education For mental and intellectual development.

In present times, by mental development in the field of education is meant the knowledge of language for communication of ideas, knowledge of different subjects for the knowledge of material and spiritual world, development of mental faculties, such as- memory, observation, imagination, logic, thinking, meditation, generalization and decision-taking, etc., training in distinguishing truth and untruth on the basis of reasoning, development of their faculty of logic, and to protect them from mental illnesses (fear, pessimism, complexes, etc.) and to produce in them mental stimulators (fearlessness, optimism and self-confidence, etc.). And for this all, children are given opportunities for free expression. By it, the communication of thoughts and language development take place simultaneously. The knowledge of different subjects and training in different activities are helpful in the intellectual development of the children. In present times, the children are given opportunities for learning by doing. It brings about the development of their mental powers, such as- memory, observation, imagination and logic, etc. The children are behaved with love and sympathy, so they are protected from fear, they become fearless, they are protected from pessimism, they become optimists, they are protected from complexes, they become self-confident.

[III] Social Development

Man is a social being. The psychologists have found out that he has the instinct of gregariousnes which inspires him to live in group. In group, sometimes he loves others and sometimes hates them, sometimes he shows sympathy towards others, and sometimes enmity; and sometimes he cooperates with others and sometimes he does not. Generally people term the development of feelings of love, sympathy cooperation as social development. The sociologists have explained that each person learns the language, living style, customs and conduct of his society to adjust in the society. Some people call the training in these activities as social development, but in the terminology or sociology it is socialization. Moreover, if a person would have only adjusted in his society, he would have not achieved this development. He has all the power to understand the good and evil of his society, and he tries to accept the good and to do away with the evil, and in sociological terminology, it is call social change.  All these are included in the periphery of social development.

It is very essential to bring about social development of the children. Without social development the children can neither adjust in their society, nor can bring about, social change. The social development of persons is also necessary in order to accept the social changes.

However, only bringing about social development of the children does not exhaust the functions of education. It will have to effect all types of physical, mental cultural, moral, character, vocational and spiritual development of children.

[IV] Cultural Development

Generally, whatever the members of a society have thought, understood and done good is called the culture of that society. Sociologists call all physical or material achievements as material culture and ideological achievements as non-material culture.

In our view by the culture of a society is meant that specific living style, eating habits, customs, art, skill, music, dance, Language, literature, religion and philosophy in which it has faith and all its members consider their culture as the supreme and conduct themselves according to it, and thus the culture of a society is preserved. Besides, the intellectual people of each society experience new things, they understand the reality of their experiences by their reasoning power and when it is felt necessary, they negate the untruth and propound new truths. Thus, development in a society's culture takes place However, it has been seen that any culture does not leave its original or fundamental form, it is its greatest feature.

Each society has its own culture and it transmits it to the next generation. It is a universal and perennial fact. So it is but natural for any society to have the cultural development of its children as one of the aim of education.

[V] Moral and Character Development

Moral and character development is the chief aim of education. Every society has its certain principles and rules of conduct. Morality and character are inseparable. One cannot be thought of in the absence of another. However, in different disciplines, morality and character have been analysed differently. The humanists consider conduct as favourable to society in the form of  morality and character. Psychologists accept the group of good habits and firm will power as character. Spiritualists consider self-refrain and conduct favourable to religion as morality and character. Literature takes abidance by the social rules as morality and character. Those who do not abide by morality have their own character. A robber has his own unique character, it is another thing whether it is good or bad.

In the field of education, when we speak of moral and character development we mean that the society takes its children forward to the abidance by conduct rule with firm will power. And conduct depends on the geographical situation, philosophical ideology, social structure, political system, economic system, scientific progress and material and spiritual achievements. In religious societies, religion is the basis o morality. And because most of the people in the world adhere to one or the other religion, their conduct is based on their respective religions, so generally people d not distinguish between religion and morality. In our view too, morality based o religion is the true morality; but there is certain degree of helplessness in our country There are several religions and communities in our country. We cannot impart the education of morality as based on any one specific religion

[VI] Vocational Development

The vocational aim of education is meant to train the children, according to their interests, aptitudes, abilities and needs, in certain production works, such as Deming, or in certain professions such as-shopkeeping, teaching, law and medicine practice, or in certain small industry, such as weaving, spinning, carpentry, ironsmithery, leather work, or providing them technological, management and administration education for running the heavy industries.

Vocational aim of education is an important aim of education. The most basic needs of man include bread, cloth and shelter. Education should fulfill our basic needs. The development of art, literature and music also requires money. In the present times, there is no limit to the physical needs and as such, we need much money. We can get this money by production or industry. If we educate the children in production or industry, then they will take its benefit, and it will certainly eradicate unemployment and poverty, and our country will become prosperous. 

[VII] Education of Political System and Citizenship

In the field of education, by the education of political system is meant to acquaint the people with the qualities of the political system of the country. But the knowledge of a political system has no meaning until the citizens have loyalty towards it and conduct themselves according to it. The rights and duties of the citizens in: country's political system are definite. The education of citizenship aims at inspiring the citizens to acquaint themselves with their rights and duties and to conduct themselves accordingly. 

In the present times, it is a compulsory aim of education in all the countries of the world. By it a nation develops its citizens according to its beliefs and acquaint them with their rights and duties and encourages them to conduct themselves accordingly. It makes the citizens aware of their duties towards the country, and the become active for its progress. For the development of national integration, the education of political system and citizenship is essential.

[VIII] Realization of the Needs and Aspirations of the Nation

There are so many countries in the world, and each of them has numerous small and large societies. These countries have their specific needs. Besides, they have their own aspirations, and these needs and aspirations keep changing. For example. class difference is increasing in our society, and we aspire that our society becomes a classless society, and our country is backward and we have the aspiration to make it advanced, and for these, we are taking the help of education. 

In the field of education, by realization of national needs and aspirations is meant the arrangement of such education by which needs and aspirations of the country are realized. 

Education is the fundamental means of human development. So it is necessary that it should prepare citizens and society for the solution of prevalent problems and fulfillment of aspirations of the individual and society, and it should be its contemporary aim.

 [IX] Spiritual Development

This is the supreme aim of education. It is another thing that there is no provision for it in the education controlled by state, and if it exists in some states, it is in the form of education of a particular religion. Most of the people of the world consider man as the sum total of body, mind and soul. The development of body and mind are the two foremost aims of education. Besides, man is a social being too. So they also talk about his social, cultural, moral and character development. Man has certain physical, mental and social needs for the realization of which all of us think of vocational development. However, spiritual development has been left out between, we fail to understand why.

By spiritual development in the field of education is meant that man has to be acquainted with the reality of the whole universe, he has to be acquainted with his self-power and he has to be acquainted with the abstract omnipotent existence. 

Agencies of Education: Formal, Informal and Non-Formal

Agencies of Education: Formal, Informal and Non-Formal

Meaning and Definition of Agencies of Education 

Education is a social process. The social group or organization of which the individual is a member, he takes part in its social consciousness, and as a result of this interaction, his behaviour is influenced. These social groups or organizations that take forward the educational process are called agencies of education. By the word agent is meant worker, representative, broker or means. From this viewpoint, agency should mean a place where an agent works. But by agencies of education is meant such groups or organizations which help individuals in their education directly or indirectly. 

In the words of B.D. Bhatia : 

"Society has developed a number of specialized institutions to carry out the functions of education. These institutions are known as the agencies of education."

But the fact is that almost all social groups and organizations, whether they have been constituted to carry out educational task or any other tasks, they certainly influence the education of people directly or indirectly. Agencies of education should be defined as follows : "By agencies of education is meant those social groups and organizations which help in the education of people in any way, directly or indirectly."

Classification of Agencies of Education

Education is a social process that is conducted in all social groups and organizations knowingly or unknowingly. From educational viewpoint, all these groups and organizations are called agencies of education. They are so many and numerous in themselves that it is difficult to classify them. But some educationists have attempted to classify them keeping the chief agencies of education in view. Of them, three chief classes are discussed here.

Formal, Informal and Non-Formal  Agencies of Education

Most scholars have classified agencies of education into two parts formal and informal. Some scholars have called the agencies as different from these two as non-formal.

From etymological viewpoint, the agencies that arrange formal education should be called formal agencies; those that arrange non-formal education should be called non-formal agencies and those that arrange informal education should be called informal agencies. But from this viewpoint, all agencies will be included in all the three classes. For example, family is chiefly an informal agency of education, but it also helps in non-formal and formal education. In fact, this classification has been done on this basis whether an agency has been constituted for education of the children or adults, or with some other purpose.

Formal Agencies of Education

Formal agencies of education are those social groups or organizations which the society constitutes especially for education; such as education department of the government and teaching institutions (schools, colleges and universities). The education that is arranged by these agencies, its aim, curriculum and teaching methods are specified. The students receive education under the care and guidance of teachers. In one sentence, we can say that these agencies run education in a planned manner.

The society or state realizes its aims through these agencies. In the absence of formal agencies, it is not possible to transfer all acquired attributes and achievements in a complex society to its next generation. These agencies help the children in learning which they cannot learn through informal agencies. It is essential to constitute these agencies for science and technology education. Not only this, they are required to systematize and give proper direction to the knowledge and conduct learned from informal agencies.

But these agencies have their own limitations. The education of children in the age group of 1-3 years cannot be made by them. Difficulty is also faced in arranging education for children in the age group of 3-5 years, and it is the time when the foundation of child's personality is laid. Besides, another shortcoming of these agencies is that they generally lay emphasis on bookish knowledge and comparatively less on code of conduct. Sometimes they think that their duty is to complete the specified curriculum only, and in such a case, it becomes the end in place of being a means.

Informal Agencies of Education 

Informal agencies of education are those social groups or organizations that are constituted of their own under the social structure, and which have no aim of arranging formal or non-formal education, but they influence the education of the children, youths and adults knowingly or unknowingly, such as family, community and religious institutions, etc. The education conducted in these agencies has no specific aims, curriculum or teaching methods. Here the people learn naturally by coming in contact with each other.

Much of education of the people is conducted in these agencies, so they an very important. Formal agencies have provision of purposeful education, but the children receive education in behaviour and code of conduct by informal agencies They have a great significance in the education of language, lifestyle and eating manners, customs and traditions and conduct. These agencies significantly contribute in the preservation and development of civilization and culture. American educationist in John Dewey considered these agencies as accidental, natural and significant. According to him, real education of the children is conducted in these institutions, their intelligence develops, their imagination sharpens and they adjust in the society. These agencies also construct formal agencies of education.

But informal agencies too have their own limitations. By them systematized education cannot be provided. Modern social life has become so complex that we cannot understand it without providing systematized education. The education of different skill cannot be imparted by these informal agencies. Formal agencies are needed for vocational and industrial education too.

Non-Formal Agencies of Education

Non-formal agencies of education are those social groups or organizations that provide non-formal education for children, youths and adults. It is clear that the education run by these agencies, have generally specified aims, curriculum and teaching methods, etc.

The children that are unable to receive formal education and the illiterates whe want to study, the non-formal agencies of education play a vital role in their education They also contribute in providing update knowledge to the literate youths and adults in their respective fields. The truth remains that mass education, adult education and continuing education are conducted through these non-formal agencies of education.

Some scholars call libraries, reading rooms and playgrounds as formal agencies, while some call them informal agencies.

Balance in Formal, Informal and Non-Formal Agencies 

All the three formal, non-formal and informal agencies of education play a vital role in the development of a child. If we think we find that child's education begins at home. We are also aware of the influence of family, neighbourhood and other social groups in his education. Here we think it sufficient to mention that these institutions of education have vital role to play in the child's education and the credit for the arrangement of formal agencies goes to them. Their importance in the field of education should be accepted.

On the other hand, our social development has arrived at a very complex station. We have generally made unprecedented progress in almost all fields. We need systematized education for understanding them. Systematized education is provided by formal agencies, especially by schools Schools provide equal opportunities to all children to develop according to their interest, aptitude and needs.

But formal and non-formal agencies cannot succeed in their task until informal agencies of education do not help them. In the present age, all the three of formal, non-formal and informal types of agencies of education have their own significance. The success of each of them depends on every other. They should work in cooperation. If formal, non-formal and informal agencies cooperate with each other, our education system would be effective and fruitful. We should make efforts for it.

Meaning and Nature of Education (Education in Contemporary Indian Society)

Meaning and Nature of Education

Meaning of Education

Education is the fundamental means of human development. By it the innate powers of human beings are developed, their knowledge and skills are enhanced, their behaviour is changed and they are made civilized and cultured citizens. And this task begins right from the birth of man. Just a few days after the birth of the child, his parents and other members of the family start to teach him to hear and to speak. When he grows a little more, he is taught the methods of sitting, standing, moving, eating and social conduct. When he attains the age of three-four years, he is taught how to read and write. At this age, he is also sent to school. In the school, his education is organized in a very proper manner. Besides the school, he is also taught in his family and community. And this practice of teaching-learning continues even after the child leaves the school, and it goes on over the whole life. If we see it in its extensive form, the process of education in the society continues forever. In its real sense, the purposeful process of teaching and learning that goes on forever in the society is education.

The etymological meaning of education

The etymological meaning of education is just the same. By it is meant the process of teaching and learning. The word 'education' has been derived from the Latin word "educatum', which is made by the joining of 'e' and 'duco'. 'E' means 'from inside' and 'duco' means 'to proceed forward' So, the word 'education' implies 'expression of internal faculties of the child towards outside'

In analyzing the form of education, the chief role has been played by philosophers, sociologists, political scientists, economists, psychologists and scientists. Here is a brief description of their view points.

Philosophical Concept of Education 

Man is the focal point of philosophers. They attempt to know the real form of man and to determine the ultimate aim of his life. The philosophers are also interested in determining the means for the attainment of ultimate aim of human life, and they consider education as necessary for their knowledge and training. Thus, in the viewpoint of philosophers, education is a means of attaining the ultimate aim of human life. 

According to Jagadguru Shankaracharya :

"Sa vidya ya vimuktaya. (Education is what emancipates.)"

The Indian philosopher Swami Vivekananda has considered man as perfect by birth and has laid emphasis on enabling him to experience this perfection with the help of education. 

In his words : "Education is manifestation of perfection already present in man."

Mahatma Gandhi has laid equal emphasis on the development of all the three aspects of man body, mind and soul. 

In his words : "By education I mean an all-round drawing out of the best in child and man-body, mind and spirit." 

According to the Greek philosopher Plato : "Education consists in giving to the body and soul all the perfection to which they are susceptible."      

Plato's pupil, Aristotle has defined education in the following way : "Education is the creation of a sound mind in a sound body."

Sociological Concept of Education

The focal point of sociologists is society. They see and understand the individual in the context of society. They consider education as the means of development of the individuals and of the society. They have divulged the following facts regarding the nature of education :

1. Education is a Social Process: The sociologists have clarified that when social interaction takes place between two or more people they are influenced by each other's language, thoughts and conduct. The process of this influence is called learning. and when this task is done with certain aims in view, it is called education. 

2. Education is a Continuous Process: The education continues forever in the society. Man's education begins a few days after his birth and continues right up to the end of his life. The members of the society continue to exhaust, but its education process goes on generation after generation. It does never take a rest. Thus, continuity is its second feature.

3. Education is a Bipolar Process: Sociologists have clarified that in the process  of education, one influences and the other is influenced. So it is clear that education is a bipolar process. According to them, the two poles of education are the one that influences (teacher) and the other that is influenced (pupil). The American educationist John Dewey too has considered two poles of education one, psychological and the other social. By psychological aspect he means the interest, aptitude and ability of the learner, and by the social aspect he means his social environment. 

4. Education is the Process of Development: The innate behaviour of man a slike an animal Education is used to amend and mould his behaviour. If we look art with a wider viewpoint main secures his experiences with the help of education and hands them over to the next generation. On the basis of this knowledge, the next generation gies further and adds to it its own experiences and thoughts. Thus, the social con and culture develop. It is not possible in the absence of education. It is clear that education is a process of development. We should understand one thing here that each creature in the world learns to eat and speak, etc while being in the company of his like beings by imitating them and following them. 

5. Education is a Dynamic Process: By education man effects continuous development in his civilization and culture. For this development, one generation transfers its knowledge and skill to the next generation. For this transfer, each society makes arrangement of school education. So, the aims, curriculum and teaching methods of specific school education are generally definite But as the changes occur in the society, education accepts those changes and moves forward. Thus, its aims, curriculum and teaching methods etc. change according to the needs of the society. This is its dynamism. If education would have not been dynamic, we could have not proceeded on the path of development.

Political Concept of Education

The focal point of political scientists is the state and its political system they look and understand the individual and society, both in the context of state and its political system. They consider education as the means of nation building. A nation is built with able citizens and able citizens are made by education. In their view : Real education is that which makes able citizens.

Economic Concept of Education

The basic point of economists is economic resources and systems. They think and understand all human activities in the context of economy They accept education as a productive activity. In their view, education besides being an object of consumption, it is also a component of production. The results of researches show that the productive capability and organisational ability of an educated man is comparatively more than an uneducated man, and it is so much more that the additional benefit accruing from it is much more than the expenditure done on his education. So, the economists accept education in the form of economic investment. In their view :

Education is an economic investment by which the production and organisational skills of an individual are developed and thus, the productive capability of the individual, society and that of nation is increased and their economic development is effected. 

Psychological Concept of Education

By this point of Indian Yoga psychology is man's outer form and inner-solf both. In his external form, it studies his organs of action and perception, and in his inner-self, it studies his consciousness (mind, intellect and ego). In its view : Education is the training of external organs and inner-self of man.

The western psychologists give importance the body, mind and behaviour of man. They have not been able to discover the basic components of his inner-self mind. intellect and ego as yet. In their viewpoint, man is a psycho-physical creature who takes birth with certain innate faculties and his development depends on these faculties themselves. So education should effect the development of these faculties first. 

Pestalozzi opines : "Education is a natural, harmonious and progressive development of man's innate powers."

Froebel has defined :  "Education is a process by which a child makes its internal external."

Scientific Concept of Education

The focal point of scientists is the physical world and its objects and activities They look at any object or activity objectively. As far as the innate faculties of man are concemed, they are in agreement with psychology, however, so far as it relates to human behaviour, they accept the sociological facts. They accept education as a means of development of the inner faculties in accordance with outer life. 

In the words Herbert Spencer : "Education means establishment of coordination between the inherent  powers and the outer life." 

The True Concept of Education

Education is that continuous and purposeful social process by which the innate powers of man are developed, his knowledge and skills are enhanced, his behaviour is changed and he is made a civilized and cultured citizen. By it the Individual and society both develop continuously.

This definition of education is complete in itself. It clearly describes the nature of education (that it is a purposeful, social, continuous, dynamic and developmental process) and its functions (that by it the innate powers of man are developed, his knowledge and skills are enhanced, his behaviour is changed and he is made a civilized and cured citizen). In making an individual a civilized and cultured citizen, all the aims and functions of education of any society are included. So this definition of education should be acceptable to all

Wider and Narrower Meanings of Education

We know that the education of a child in a society goes on in the family, in the small and big social groups, community centres and different types of schools, colleges and universities. However, some people term only the education conducted in schools, colleges and universities as education. Thus, education is used in its two forms in its wider form and in its narrower form.

Wider Meaning of Education

We know that when man takes birth, he is in a very helpless state, but he starts to learn by imitating his fellow beings and gradually learns different types of activities. then He learns the first lesson in the lap of his mother and then learns in his family nady environment and then in other social groups. The civilized societies arrange schools for the proper development of their children and to bring about desirable change in their behaviour. But the children also learn at other places besides the schools. And the truth remains that the process of teaching-learning continues even after they leave schools and it goes on lifelong. In its extensive sense, this lifelong continuous teaching- learning process is education. The aims, curriculum and teaching methods of this education are very wide, they cannot be limited, but they all are progressive. 

In the words of J.S. Mackenzie : "In wider sense, it is a process that goes on throughout life and that is prometed by almost every experience in life."

In its wider sense, education is that continuous and purposeful social process by which the innate powers of man are developed, his knowledge and skills are enhanced, his behaviour is changed and he is made a civilized and cultured citizen. By it the individual and society both develop continuously.

Narrower Meaning of Education

In the words of J.S. Mackenzie : "In narrower sense, it may be taken to mean any consciously directed efforts to develop and cultivate our powers."

Most of the scholars are in agreement with this definition of education in its narrower sense, but it does not provide a clear cut knowledge of the form of education and of its outcome. In our view, education in its narrower sense should be defined as follows

In its narrower sense, education is that purposeful social process which is conducted in a society at a definite time and at definite place (schools) in an organized way and by which the innate powers of man are developed, his knowledge and skills are enhanced, his behaviour is changed and he is made a civilized and cultured citizen. By it, the individual and society both develop continuously.

Nature of Education

The nature of education has been basically discussed by philosophers, sociologists, political scientists, economists, psychologists and scientists. From their viewpoint, the following facts can be divulged regarding the nature of education  :

(1) Education is a social process. It has three factors chiefly learner, teacher and teaching-learning material or activity. 

(2)  Education is a continuous process. 

(3) Education is a purposeful process; its aims are determined by the society and are progressive by nature. Thus, education is a process of development. 

(4) In its wider sense, the subject-matter of education is very extensive, it cannot be delimited, but in its narrower sense, its subject-matter is limited to definite curriculum In both the senses, this is helpful in the development of the individual and of the society.

(5) In its wider sense, its methods are very extensive, but in its narrower sense, they are almost definite. 

(6) The form of education of a society depends on several factors, such as-its religion, philosophy, culture, political system, economic system and progress in science and technology etc.

(7) It is evident from the above facts that with the change in the religion, philosophy, culture, political system, economic system, and science and technology of the society the form of its education too changes. Thus, the nature of education is dynamic.

Education for Citizenship : Meaning, Definition, Meaning of Citizenship in the Context of India, Nature, Characteristics, Need and Importance of Development of Democratic Citizenship

Education for Citizenship

Meaning and Definition

Generally, the country in which a man is born, he is considered a cit that county however, in real sense of the term, he becomes the citizen of that when he has faith in the Constitution and government of that country, and ab the principles, laws and rules of the Constitution and government, and behaves accordingly. Thus:

By citizenship is meant that quality of citizens which incline them to have faith  in the Constitution and government of that, and abides by the principles, laws  and rules and to conduct accordingly

Meaning of Citizenship in the Context of India

Our country gained freedom on 15 August, 1947 and our Constitutions into force from 26 January, 1950. In our Constitution, each individual is accept the citizen of the country without any discrimination on grounds of religion, race, religion or sex, at the same time, it expects of its citizens that they would have fa the Constitution and government of the country and follow their principles, laws roles. The basic sprit of the Constitution has been mentioned in its preamble as follows:

"WE, THE PEOPLE OF INDIA, having solemnly resolved to constitute b into a Sovereign, Socialist, Secular, Democratic Republic and to secure to all its citizens JUSTICE, social, economic and political, LIBERTY of thought, expression, belief,i and worship, EQUALITY of status and of opportunity; and to promote among all: FRATERNITY assuring the dignity of the individual and the unity and the integration of the Nation. In our Constituent Assembly this twenty-sixth day of November 1949 do Hereby, Adopt, Enact and Give to Ourselves this Constitution." 

This declaration and resolve explains that India is a democratic country and is based on six principles of freedom, equality, fraternity, socialism, secularism and justice .Therefore, it is necessary to enlighten on this topic.

Freedom: The first principle of democracy is freedom. Democracy consider every human as the most valuable thing of the world, and provides him free opportunity to express himself and develop himself. With this freedom, our Indian democracy! allows freedom to follow one's religion and worship accordingly. In the Article 1 the Constitution, each citizen has been given the freedom to think, express, assemble. tour, reside, earn and sell property and choose trade or vocation. Democracy does not give the right to any person to occupy another's property, or one state to occupy another. or one society to occupy another. So, it would be apt to say that in democracy, freedom means to protect one's own freedom as well that of others.

Equality: Equality is the second principle of our democracy The Constitution of India does not discriminate between people on grounds of caste, culture, religion or sex etc. (Article 15); considers everybody as equal before the law (Article 14); gives equal opportunities to all in public services (Article 16); gives equal opportunities to use public places (Article 15); prohibits untouchability (Article 17); and also ends all titles introduced by the English, as those of Rai Bahadur, and thus, considers all citizens equal. All citizens are given equal rights in the Indian democracy, however, equal rights are corollary to the equal duties too.

Fraternity: Democracy favours national integration together with individual dignity. It can be possible when all citizens of the country are linked to one another with the feeling of 'we' This is called fraternity or brotherhood in other words Democracy wishes to see this spirit sprout in the entire humanity, it believes in the principle of coexistence. According to it, any problem of the country or world should be resolved through dialogue, and not by conflict.

Socialism: The term 'socialism' is taken to mean in two contexts: in the context of social structure and in the context of economy. In the social context, socialism signifies a classless society; that is, a society in which there is not practised any discrimination between man and man on any ground such as caste, culture, race, religion and sex etc.; all are given equal status. In the economic context, socialism lays stress on three points: first, the state should own the entire wealth of the country, second, all people should be paid according to their work; and third, there should be minimum difference between physical work and intellectual work. However, we can see several forms of socialism in the world. Indian socialism does not distinguish people on grounds of caste, culture, religion and sex etc.; and adopts mixed economy in the economic sphere, and gives people an opportunity to effect their economic development independently, however, it is opposed to any kind of exploitation.

Secularism: By secularism is commonly meant 'devoid of religion". In this sense, our democracy is not based on any religion; their is no religion as national religion. Its specific sense is equal respect to all religion. It has been adopted by our democracy in the sense of Gandhiji's Sarva Dharma Sambhav (harmony or equality of all religions). Articles from 25 to 28 in our Constitution have explained this in detail. Our Constitution has given the freedom to follow one's religion and worship accordingly. Besides, it gives freedom to profess and propagate it too, but it prohibits forced conversion. It also clearly declares that no educational institution run by the state will impart education of any religion. The state-aided educational institutions are also prohibited to impart any religious education.

Justice : Democracy espouses social, economic and political justice. In our Indian democracy, social justice has been meted out by eradicating untouchability, giving equal opportunities for education to all children in 6-14 years age group giving equal rights to all men and women, besides, it has done economic just ending begar custom, slavery custom and bonded labour and by providing equality for equal work, and political justice has been realized on giving everybody the rig vole and contest election without any discrimination on grounds of caste, religious or education etc. Besides, there is a provision of justice by the state without any discrimination , in case of any dispute regarding Fundamental Rights and for of rights.

 In the Indian context, by citizenship is meant having faith in Constitution of India and principles of Indian democracy and to conduct according to them. It is generally called democratic citizenship. 

Nature and Characteristics of Democratic Citizenship

Democratic citizenship contains the following elements: 

1. Faith in democratic principles.

2. Focus on one's own freedom as well that of others.

3. Taking all people of the country as equal and having a sense of respect for them. 

4. Having no discrimination on any grounds including caste, religion, sex or place.

5. Community sense of love, sympathy and cooperation. 

6. Sense of tolerance for all cultures and religions.

7. Belief in social, economic and political justice.

8. Faith in conservation of human rights.

9. Dedication to duty.

Need and Importance of Development of Democratic Citizenship

The system of governance in any country succeeds only when its citizens ha faith in it and they conduct themselves accordingly. At present, we have a democratic system of government in India; it can succeed only when the citizens of the country have faith in democracy and live a democratic way of life. It is a method of living which every individual enjoys the equal significance; everybody looks at another equal respect, and everybody is given complete freedom to effect his development however, without causing an impediment in the development of others. There is place for class discrimination and exploitation in this way of living. However, in o country, the situation is that our citizens have not been able to adopt this Art of Living So, it is compulsory to have a democratic attitude, it would be in this condition that all citizens will be able to use freedom in true sense of the word; they will be able enjoy their lives with a sense of equality, live together in harmony and respect es other's personality and individuality; will be able to cooperate with one another, will cultivate cultural and religious tolerance, everybody will preserve one another rights, and will also follow their own duties. Success of democracy depends democratic attitude and democratic conduct. 

Education for the Development of Democratic Citizenship

To cultivate democratic citizenship in Indian children, it would be mandatory to make the entire educational system democratic. It would be a matter of clation that we have already advanced towards this goal, yet there remains much more to be done.

(1) The first 10-year education should be made compulsory and free in the whole of country. At present, only first 8-year education is compulsory and free. Democratic citizenship cannot be cultivated in children up to this age level  well.

(2) The aims of first 10-year education should be democratic and one of the aims should be to explain the principles of democracy and cultivate democratic citizenship in each child.

(3) The curriculum of the first ten-year education should be based on democratic principles; it should compulsorily comprise social service and national service projects, and importance should be attached to physical work in it.

(4) In the first 10-year course, importance should be attached to democratic teaching-learning methods so that children learn to work collectively.

(5) Harsh discipline should be replaced with self-discipline in schools. Schools should create such environment in which children maintain discipline of themselves.

(6) The attitude of teachers should be democratic. They should be democratic in both thought and deed.

(7) Children should be given liberty to play and express themselves from the very early level; besides, they should be taught that they should protect each other's freedom and should not impede others' freedom.

(8) All children should be considered equal from the infant level; no discrimination should be exercised on grounds of caste, religion, place etc., and they too should consider themselves equal and should respect one another.

(9) All children should be treated with love, sympathy and cooperation right from the pre-primary level, and they should be trained in behaving with others with love, sympathy and cooperation.

(10) Children should be engaged in social service and national service tasks right since childhood.

(11) At the secondary level, adolescent students should be clearly taught about the six principles of Indian democracy, which are freedom, equality, fraternity, socialism, secularism and justice. Their basic spirit should also be explained.

(12) At this level, children should be taught about the Fundamental Rights given to citizens by the state, and they should also be taught about their Fundamental Duties as prescribed by the state, and their faith should be inculcated towards them.

(13) Democracy is a staunch supporter of human rights. At the secondary level, children should be clearly taught about the human rights and they shou inclined towards their conservation.

(14) At this level, adolescent students should be given general knowledge the main cultures and religions of the world, and it should be made clear all religions teach humanity to man. 

(15) For the realization of the above tasks, it is necessary for schools to have democratic form.

(i) There should be equal respect between management, principal and tead It is necessary that they should carry out their duties with love, sympathy and cooperation. It is natural for children to cultivate the sense democratic citizenship in such an environment. 

(ii) Students' cooperation should be sought in all tasks of the school cultivates a sense of joint responsibility.

(iii) Schools should constitute self-governments in order to train students the democratic system. 

(iv) Teachers should assist children in the organization of curricular and curricular activities in both collective and individual forms; their collective and individual problems too should be solved. 

(v) It is necessary that children are not exploited in schools at any level under any situation.

Conclusion 

We have been independent for the past 69 years, and the Constitution of l was brought into force 66 years ago; yet we have not been able to cultivate citizens in our citizens, we have failed to train them in a democratic lifestyle. The more advance towards realization of this goal, the more backward we are pulled by t political parties due to their vested interests. They leave no stone unturned in order form their vote banks by dividing the society in the name of region, caste and religious All of their activities are undemocratic completely; they do not respect the Constitution nor do they abide by the democratic principles. In truth, there is need of youth revolution in the country, and it is by this that the vote politics of the political parties can brought to an end, and it would help establish democracy in the country in true sense of the term.

Globalization : Meaning, Definition, India and Globalization, Globalization of Education in India, Advantages and Disadvantages

Globalization

Meaning and Definition of Globalization

The etymological meaning of the term 'globalization' is to propagate extend some thought, activity or object in the entire world. In the present context meaning is somewhat different and a little more extensive. Until a few years ago, term was used only in commerce; at that time, globalization meant to allow different countries to trade in one another's countries, to approve setting up industry manufacture, sell and purchase goods. However, at present, its scope has exponent  -days, all countries of the world have become proximal due to mean transport and development of telecommunication technology, and all are be influenced by the development occurring in another country. Now, almost all court are exchanging in social, cultural, economic, political, scientific and technological fie to effect development in their own countries. Presently, the process of globalization does not integrate economy alone, it also embraces culture and technology etc. 

In words of Knight :

By globalization is meant the increasing flow of technology, finance, trade, knowledge, values and thoughts across borders.

However, increasing flow across borders does not signify interrelation between nations, nor does it signify exchange. Therefore, in our view, it should defined in the following words :

By globalization at present means establishing interrelations with ea other country of the world and making change in each field of life-culture economic, political, scientific and technical.

India and Globalization

It has become necessary for any country in the world now that it undertake exchanges in all fields of life with all other countries of the world in order to maintain continuity in its progress and to march together with them. India is a developing count and its goal is to enter the class of developed countries by the year 2020; for which is essential that the process of globalization is adopted. In its absence, how could have attained nuclear and space technology from developed countries! It is absolute necessary for it to join in this process in order to achieve rapid development. Of course the process of globalization has also caused disadvantages in addition to advantages.

Globalization has helped to increase agricultural production with a higher demand for it abroad. It has increased competition in the industrial field, so production and quality have shot up together with demand in other countries. This has helped to raise the foreign exchange reserve in the country. Import of nuclear and space technology has made the country the sixth major power in the world. In sum, the country is making strides in progress in every field. According to Dr. A.P.J. Abdul Kalam, the former President, our country will be one of the developed countries before 2020.

In spite of these advantages, the country is also facing some disadvantages. It is the influence of globalization that our spirituality-oriented culture is being replaced by materialistic culture. It is the influence of foreign political policies on our native political policies that once we went for public enterprises, but now we are marching towards privatization. In the economic field, the influence of globalization appears to be pleasing, yet its distant outcomes will be quite harmful. Being part of the process of globalization, a number of foreign companies are setting up their industries and trade centers in our country, which is giving employment to our educated youth. Also, our industrialists are setting up industries in other countries and are earning vital foreign: exchange. All these are very fascinating dreams. The truth is that our profit is good, but what the foreign companies earn here is ten times as much. Its negative impact is that the consumption of native goods has been fallen day by day. The day is not far when our small native industries will be closed down and foreign industries will have their sway. Not only this, giving concession to harmful products like wine, beer, soft drinks and junk foods will amount to giving open invitation to newer diseases. Our field is education, so we think it necessary to discuss the influence of globalization in the field of education.

Globalization of Education in India

The meaning of globalization of education is not restricted to exchange of educational views among different countries and get education abroad, but it also comprises setting up educational institutions in one-other countries. At present, there are several such educational institutions in our country which are recognized and affiliated to foreign educational institutions (boards and universities); they run their courses, conduct examinations for students studying in them and grant them certificates and degrees, and these certificates and degrees are recognized in our country. On the other hand, there are a number of educational institutions of our country being run in other countries, and their certificates and degrees are recognized in those countries. The IGNOU has set up a number of centers abroad.

A few years ago, it came to light that there are several such foreign universities in India that have set up their educational centers here, but they are not recognized in their respective countries, while they are charging hefty fee from students here. The then HRD minister, Dr. Murli Manohar Joshi had talked of bringing these under control, but the fact remains that a network of these institutions is covering the whole of India. The Government of India has allowed up to 50 percent foreign direct investment in the field of higher education. This has opened the path for foreign recognized universities to enter joint ventures with India's government and recognize private universities and open campuses. The government argues in favour of decision that about 1,30,000 students go abroad to get higher education and take admission in universities there, and they have to spend as much as 4 billion dollar per annum. If these campuses are established in India, the number of Indian student going abroad will come down and consequently the expenditure incurred by them w come down too. Yet another merit of it is that the students who can not go abroad d to any reason would be able to get that education in the country itself. This argument does not bode well. Why is there so much of attraction for foreign degrees? Can note of our universities provide a matching higher education? We need to emancipam ourselves from this intellectual slavery. But it is inevitable for the country at present Therefore, we should consider its merits and demerits before accepting it with  precaution.

Advantages and Disadvantages of Globalization of Education in India

At present, education is being globalised in the country, yet it amounts to lea of advantage and more of disadvantage. Let us discuss the advantages and disadvantage of globalization of education in the Indian context.

Advantages of Globalization of Education

(1) Foreign universities will introduce newer courses and youth of India will be benefited from them.

(2) Entry of foreign universities in India will start a competition between India and foreign universities, which will raise the quality of Indian universities.

(3) The thought and achievements in educational field will benefit each other.

(4) India will make still higher advancement in the technological field. 

(5) Globalization of education will mean the arrival of foreign universities in the country and ours going to other countries; this will help exchange culture and civilization.

(6) Cultural tolerance will be cultivated in all countries.

 (7) It will enhance international goodwill. 

Disadvantages of Globalization of Education

(1) India comes next to China in terms of population. Ten to one will be the ratio between the educational institutions coming in and going out, this will result into the foreign educational institutions making a lot of money.

(2) These educational institutions will come equipped with newer courses, resulting into import of textbooks, which will be a loss-making endeavour.

(3) In toto, these foreign educational institutions will prove to be costlier than the self-financed educational institutions. 

(4) Despite their being expensive, people will be attracted to them, and a new elite class will emerge in the country.

(5) These foreign educational institutions will bring with them their culture; the western culture will have an even wider influence. 

(6) In a few years, these institutions will start to lead us intellectually, and our prestige will be in jeopardy.

(7) Neo-imperialism will be encouraged in the name of globalization, knowingly or unknowingly.

An Opinion

However, disadvantageous globalization of education might be, but under the changing situations of the world, we would have to adopt it. What is needed is to exercise some caution as follows:

(1) The educational institutions of only those countries should be allowed to enter India that allow India's educational institutions enter their countries.

(2) Only those foreign educational institutions should be allowed to operate in India which are recognized in their home countries.

(3) Besides, it is also necessary that only those educational institutions of our country should be allowed to set up campuses abroad which are recognised here. It is essential to have uniform conditions of exchange.

(4) The foreign educational institutions coming to India should first enter in joint venture with some government recognized Indian universities of India, 

(5) The Government of India should have control over the programmes and fee of all foreign educational institutions. 

(6) All those rules should be enforced on these foreign educational institutions which are enforced on Indian educational institutions. 

(7) A controller regulator like the UGC should be set up to overlook the control of these foreign educational institutions.