Skinner Operant or Instrumental Conditioning Theory (S-R Theory with Reinforcement)

Skinner Operant or Instrumental Conditioning Theory (S-R Theory with Reinforcement)

B.F. Skinner's Operant Conditioning or Instrumental Conditioning Theory of Learning proved the importance of reinforcement in learning rather than the connections being formed between stimuli and responses. The theory is called the operant conditioning as it is based on certain operations or actions which a person has to carry out. In classical theory of Pavlov, the dog was harnessed on a table and was passive. The dog performed no operations.

The presence of a stimulus is essential to evoke a response. The subject (e.g., child express fear only when he hears a loud noise and the dog waits for food to arrive salivation) had no control over the happening and is made to behave in response to the stimulus situations. But Skinner revolted against it and argued that in practical situation of our life we cannot wait for things to happen in the environment and it is not always essential that there must be some known stimuli or cause for evoking a response. In operant conditioning the subjects performed acts or 'carried out' operations and were active. A dog, a child or an individual does something, behaves in some manner, which, operates, on the environment which In turn responds to the activity. Based on the findings of his experiments Skinner concluded that "behaviour is shaped and maintained by its consequences. It is operated by the organism and maintained by its results. The occurrence of such behaviour was named operant behaviour and the process of learning that plays a part in learning such behaviour, was named as operant conditioning. More precisely operant conditioning refers to a kind of learning process where a response is made more probable or more frequent by reinforcement. It helps in the learning of operant behaviour, the behaviour that is not necessarily associated with a known stimulus.

The Experiments regarding Operant Conditioning

Skinner conducted a series of experiments with animals. For conducting the experiments with rats, he constructed a sound proof box which was equipped with a bar and a food tray.

He put a hungry rat in the box. It is so arranged that when the rat presses the lever, the feeder mechanism is activated, a light or a special sound is produced and a small pellet of food is released into the tray. All these activities were connected to a recording system. Thus the rat learned the task of pressing the bar more frequently when the food pellet reinforced the behaviour. Here, giving out the correct response is more Important and succeeded in changing the traditional S-R formula to RS formula. He believed that there are responses without known stimuli and these responses are called "emitted" responses. Responses to known stimuli are called elicited responses. He believes response first then stimulus and recognizes two kinds of reinforcers-positive and negative.

Mechanisms of Operant Conditioning

The Important thing in the mechanism of operant conditioning is the emitting of a desired response and its proper management through suitable reinforcement. Here the organism responds in a certain way so as to produce the reinforcing stimulus. The subsequent reinforcement gradually conditions the organism to emit the desired response and thus learn the desired act. The following are some of the mechanisms of operant conditioning:

(a) Shaping: It refers to the judicious use of selective reinforcement to bring certain desirable changes in the behaviour of the organism. Suppose we want to train a child for toilet training. Simply putting the child on the toilet is not successful because as soon as the child is placed on the stool, he/she begins to cry. To shape his/her behaviour, the child is given a chocolate whenever he/she is placed on the toilet. It has been observed that successful elimination follows, Similarly other techniques may also be used. In this way, shaping may be used as a successful technique for training individuals to learn difficult and complex behaviour and also for introducing desirable modification of their behaviour.

(b) Chaining: It is a sort of chain reaction where one object sparks the other object in its proximity and in turn causes sparking in the next object in the chain and so on. When we see someone we know, it is an effective stimulus for starting the chain responses. We greet him and he greets in response. His response to our greeting acts not only as a reward for our greeting but also as a stimulus for generating further response and in this way one generated response gives birth to another -response and so on indicates chaining.

(c) Generalisation: It is a fact that both animals and human beings are capable of generalizing experiences and knowledge acquired in one learning situation to another. Thus due care should be taken by the parents and teachers to reinforce the behaviour of the children only after they demonstrate the ability to generalize correctly.

(d) Discrimination: Ability of discrimination is very important in the behaviour formation. For example, in the Skinner box the animal learns to press the lever when the light is on and not to press it when the light is off. Thus the light becomes a clue or signal for the operant behaviour, I.e., the lever press response. Here the animal develops a discriminative operant which is an operant response extended to one set of circumstances but not to another. Similarly in the learning process the teacher should see that feedback is provided to the children as and when they are able to discriminate the good from bad or to provide proper feedback in correctness of his responses.

(e) Reinforcement: The concept of reinforcement is central in operant conditioning theory and is identical to the presentation of a reward. A reinforcer is the stimulus the presentation of which increases the probability of a response. Skinner used reinforcement as a procedure for controlling behaviour which produces stimulus response connection and recognizes two kinds of reinforcers-positive and negative.

Positive Reinforcement

A positive reinforcer is any stimulus (such as food, money, water, social approval, praise, knowledge of results) the introduction or presentation of which increases the likelihood of a particular behaviour. In the educational context, praise, grades, medals, and other prizes awarded to students are examples of positive reinforcers. 

Negative reinforcement

A negative reinforcer is any stimulus or those unpleasant stimuli the removal or withdrawal (such as loud noise, electric shock, social disapproval, condemnation) of which increases the likelihood of a particular behaviour. In the educational context, a teacher saying to the students that whoever does drill work properly in the class would be exempted from homework act as a negative reinforcer.

The schedules of Reinforcement

The term schedule of reinforcement suggests the particular pattern according to which reinforcers follow responses. 

Some important schedules of reinforcement are the following:

1. Continuous schedule of reinforcement: It is an arrangement of providing reinforcement after every correct response. In the teaching-learning process a student may be rewarded for every correct answer in the form of warm regards or praise or praise or approval indicates continuous schedule of reinforcement.

2. Fixed Interval reinforcement Schedule: In the fixed or periodic interval schedule the reinforcement is presented after a prescribed interval of time, i.e., every 2 minutes or 4 minutes. Here emphasis is not given on correct responses rather it is only at the expiry of the fixed interval reinforcement is given.

3. Fixed ratio reinforcement schedule: In this schedule the reinforcement is given after a fixed number of responses. It means the performance of the learner is important rather than anything else. A learner may be rewarded (receives a chocolate) after he/she answers a fixed number of questions say 2 or 3. Another example of fixed ratio schedule is a rat gets a pellet of food only after pressing the bar say 7 to 8 times.

4. Variable reinforcement schedule: When reinforcement is given at varying intervals of time or after a varying number of responses, is called a variable reinforcement schedule. In this case, reinforcement is intermittent or irregular. Here the learner does not know at which time he/she is going to be rewarded and consequently he/she remains motivated with a hope of reinforcement.

Implications of the Theory of Operant Conditioning

The following implications emerged from the theory of operant conditioning:

(i) The theory provides the basis for programmed Instruction. It is a kind of learning experience in which a programme takes the place of tutor for the students and leads him through a set of specified behaviours.

(ii) The theory has drawn attention to the Inadequacy and unsuitability of reinforcement procedure adopted in our educational system. Thus the element of reinforcement can be strengthened in the teaching- learning process.

(iii) Generally, in our schools, the desirable behaviour of the learners is not immediately reinforced to raise the probability of the recurrence of the same behaviour in future. Thus it suggests delay of reinforcement destroys the effect of reinforcing stimuli, hence, reinforcement should be given at an appropriate time and at each step.

(iv) The principle of operant conditioning can be applied in behaviour modification and ultimately desired behaviour can be strengthened depending upon the manipulation of reward.

(v) Operant conditioning emphasizes the importance of schedules in the process of reinforcement of behaviour.

(vi) Operant conditioning suggested appropriate alternatives to punishment in the form of rewarding appropriate behaviour and ignoring inappropriate behaviour, for its gradual extinction.

(vii) The root of mechanical learning in the form of teaching machines and computer assisted instruction have taken a shape in place of usual classroom instruction due to operant conditioning.

Pavlov's Classical or Respondent Conditioning Theory (S-R Theories without Reinforcement)

 Pavlov's Classical or Respondent Conditioning Theory (S-R Theories without Reinforcement)

The theory of classical conditioning was developed by a Russian physiologist named Ivan P. Pavlov in the year 1904. It is defined as a process in which a neutral stimulus, by pairing with a natural stimulus, acquires all the characteristics of natural stimulus. It is called substitution learning because we substitute a neutral stimulus in place of a natural stimulus. This is also called as respondent conditioning because the subject has noting to do himself and becomes conditioned and does the things. To understand the nature of the process of conditioning, the experiments performed by Pavlov is given below:

Experiment

Pavlov kept a dog hungry for a few days and then placed it in a sound proof room which was fitted with certain mechanically controlled devices. The observer himself remained hidden from the dog but was able to view the experiment by means of a set of mirrors. Arrangement was made to give food to the dog through an automatic mechanism. But everytime before giving food a bell was rung. When the food was given and the bell was rung it was marked that there was a automatic secretion of saliva from the mouth of the dog This activity was repeated several times. After several trials the dog was given no food but the bell was rung. It was found that even the absence of food (the natural stimulus) the ringing of the bell (an artificial stimulus) caused the dog to secrete the saliva (natural response).

The above experiment thus, brings to light four essential elements of the conditioning process, i.e., unconditioned stimulus (US. natural stimulus) is food results in a natural response called the unconditioned response (UR). The conditioned stimulus (CS, artificial stimulus) elicit conditioned response (CR). It is given below.

1. UCS                     -                 UCR

   (Food)                                    (Saliva)

2. CS+ UCS             -                 UCR(Bell+ Food)                             (Saliva)

3. CS                        -                 CR   

 (Bell)                                 (Saliva)

Principles of Conditioning

1. Reinforcement: The salivary response to the bell was strengthened as a r

esult of the food being repeatedly presented just after the bell rang.

2. Extinction: If the bell was rung too many times without the food to reinforce, the response could have disappeared.

3. Generalisation: The dog tended to respond to any sound roughly similar to the ringing of the bell.

4. Discrimination: To teach the dog to distinguish the right sound and other sounds, selective reinforcement was used, that is, the dog was given food only after the sound of the bell, but never any other sound.

Educational Implications

(i) The formation of positive attitudes, fears, love. prejudices or hatred towards an object. phenomenon or event can be developed through conditioning. Thus classical conditioning can be used to develop favourable or unfavourable attitude towards learning. teacher and the school.

(ii) We should associate faults with punishment so that whenever a child feels like committing faults, he/ she anticipates the punishments. Thus rewards and punishments may be given right at the time of the act and not to be delayed.

(iii) Repetition and habit formation is to be strengthed in the process of learning.

(iv) Most of our learning is associated with the process of conditioning from the beginning. Thus the teacher is to develop the good reading habits through conditioning.

(v) The process of conditioning not only helps us in learning what is desirable but also helps in eliminating, avoiding or unlearning of undesirable habits, unhealthy attitudes, phobias through deconditioning.

Thornsdike's Theory of Trial and Error (S-R theory with Reinforcement or Reward)

 

Thornsdike's Theory of Trial and Error 

(S-R theory with Reinforcement or Reward)

Meaning

Edward Lee Thorndike (1874-1949) was the first American psychologist who introduced the concept of reward (reinforcement) for learning and conducted a series of experiments as learning with animals. All learning, according to him, is the formation of bond or connections between stimulus response. In any act of learning, the learner is only acquiring a series of new responses and hence any description of the learning process is only a description of how a learner acquires and stabilises a new series of responses.

Thornsdike's Classical Experiment

Thorndike conducted a number of experiments on animals to explain the process of learning. His most widely quoted experiment is with cats placed in a puzzle or problem box. He put a hungry cat in a puzzle box. There was only one door which should be opened by correctly manipulating a latch or by pulling a loop of string hanging inside the box. A fish was placed outside the box. The smell of the fish acted as a strong motive for the hungry cat to come out of the box. The cat indulged a number of random activities or movements inside the box indicating trial and error type of behaviour-clawing at the bars, biting at the bars or wires, scratching the box, walking around, pulling and jumping, etc., to come out to get food. After a number of random movements the latch was manipulated accidentally and the cat came-out and got the food (reward). Over a series of successive trials the cat took shorter and shorter time and committed less number of errors and was in a position to manipulate the latch as soon as it was put in the box and learnt the art of opening the door.

Thorndike found that it was only after many random trials that the cat was able to hit upon the solution. He said it is a trial and error learning. An analysis of the learning behaviour of the cat in the box conforms that there was motivation, goal, exploration (random movements) and reinforcement, etc., in the learning process. Thus learning is the result of connection or bond formation between the stimulus and response.

Laws of Learning

On the basis of the experiments Thorndike suggested certain laws which governed human learning. The primary laws suggested are the laws of readiness, exercise and effect.

1. The Law of Readiness

The term readiness refers to preparedness of the organism in a certain manner which immediately precede the action. If the child is ready to learn, he/she learns more quickly. effectively and with greater satisfaction than if he/she is not ready to learn. Thus the law of readiness means mental preparation for action and not to force the child to learn if he is not ready. Therefore, the teacher should make an attempt to motivate the students by stimulating their attention, interest and curiosity.

2. The Law of Effect

The law explains the importance of effect or consequence in strengthening and weakening of connection. While success brings with it satisfaction and strengthening of the relation the failure increases dis-satisfaction and the absence of the relation among the facts weakens them. Therefore, all pleasant experiences have a lasting influence and are remembered for a long time, while the unpleasant ones are soon forgotten. Thus the law emphasises the role of rewards and punishment in the process of learning.

3. The Law of Exercise

The law explains the role of practice in learning. It has two sub-laws, I.e.. law of use and law of disuse. With practice the connection is strengthened (use) and when practice is discontinued, connection is weakened (disuse).

All these three laws are significant in many kinds of learning in our life and can be mentioned like "you can lead a horse to the water but you cannot make it drink". "Nothing succeeds like success", and "practice makes a man perfect" In addition to the above Thorndike mentioned five subordinate laws of learning. These are as follows:

Subordinate Laws of Learning

a. Law of multiple response or varied reaction. This laws implies that when an individual is confronted with a new situation he responds in a variety of ways trying first one response and then another before arriving at the correct one.

b. Law of attitude or mental set. Learning is guided by a total attitude or 'set' of the organism. The learner performs the task properly if he/she has developed a healthy attitude towards the work.

c. Law of partial activity: This suggests the capacity of the learner to deal with the relevant part of the situation which is directly related to his learning effort. The law states that the learner makes selective responses in a learning situation.

d. Law of analogy: This law suggests that new situations are tackled on the basis of older ones or previous experience.

e. Law of associative shifting: This law states that we may "get any response of which a learner is capable, associated with any situation to which he is sensitive.

Characteristics of S-R Theory

The factors that this theory reveals about the process of learning are its characteristics. 

(1) This theory supports connectionism, this is another thing that a considers only the establishment of relationship between stimulus and response as learning. In the process of learning, previous experiences and new experiences are also connected to each other

(2) According to this theory, application of the acquired knowledge is learning, we cannot call the knowledge as learning until it has not been used.

(3) This theory considers that the objective is necessary for learning and it considers it necessary for a motive or drive to be behind the objective, and it considers the presence of a stimulus which is helpful to the realization of the objective.

(4) This theory considers effort by the learner as necessary. According to it, a learner learns correct response by trial and error. 

(5) Thorndike has propounded some laws on the basis of this theory following which the process of teaching-learning becomes effective. 

Shortcomings of S-R Theory

(1) This theory was propounded on the basis of experiments performed on animals, this does not apply fully on the learning process of man.

(2) According to this theory, a stimulus is necessary for learning while man responds even without any stimulus, and learns as well. 

(3) This theory talks of arriving at the correct response by trial and error, while man performs the correct response by insight. 

(4) This theory considers man a biological machine and learning mechanical process, while there is a vital role played by intelligence thinking, logic and reasoning in the learning by man.

(5) This theory lays emphasis on learning by trial and error, which takes much time.

Educational Implications of the trial and error learning

Thorndike's theory is of great significance in the field of education or teaching-learning process. He has stressed the following five things which assist in the progress of learning. These are:

(i) interest in the work,

(ii) interest in improvement,

(iii) significance,

(iv) attitude,

(v) attentiveness.

He encouraged the psychological revolution in the field of education and emphasized the study of elements according to specific situations and motivation in learning. It has also given an impetus to drill and practice and highlighted the importance of rewards and praise in the field of learning.

Types of Learning

Learning 

Types of Learning

Learning has been classified by psychologists and educationists in various ways depending upon the domain specific (cognitive, affective and conative) aspects of human behaviour, l.e.. verbal learning, concept learning, learning of principles, problem solving, attitudinal learning, and learning of skills or motor learning as compared to the learning according to the methods or techniques that are employed for the Introduction of behavioural changes, l.e, conditioning (Classical and Operant), discrimination learning, chain learning, serial learning, associative learning and insightful learning and so on.

However, as an alternative basis Gagne has classified learning into eight types in a hierarchical order. These eight types are the following.

1. Signal or classical conditioning

2. SR learning or instrumental or operant conditioning 

3. Chain learning

4. Verbal associate learning 

5. Discrimination learning

6. Concept learning

7. Learning of principles, and 

8. problem solving

1 & 2. Conditioning (Classical and operant)

Conditioning is considered by many psychologists to be the fundamental form of learning. Conditioning always involves the substitution of one stimulus for another and the forcing of an association between them. A child sucks a nipple when hungry and withdraws from painful stimuli. Thus a child acquires new patterns of responses. Both the classical and operant conditioning are given in details subsequently.

3 & 4. Chain learning (Verbal and motor)

There are mainly two types of chaining, L.e., motor and verbal. Chaining means the connection of a set of individual S R in sequence. Virtually all the learning taking place in formal education is verbal learning. The language we speak and the communication devices we use are the product of verbal learning signs, pictures, symbols, words, figures, sounds and voices are employed by the individual as essential instruments for engaging in the process of learning.

Similarly, when learning involves primarily the use of muscles, it is called motor learning. In this type, the individual acquires new muscular coordinations as a mode of response to some situation. Learning to walk, to operate a typewriter, to swim, to play hockey, to play a musical instrument, drawing a geometrical design, riding a horse, driving a car, flying a plane, etc., are examples of motor learning.

5. Discrimination learning

In this type of learning, the subject is presented with two or more stimuli which differ in some detail. Here the task is to distinguish between the two situations. An infant before he can talk, generally learns to distinguish between his mother and his aunt, between milk and some other drink, and a dog and doll and so on.

6. Concept learning

A concept is a generalized idea about things, persons or events in the form of a mental image. The concept of "tree" is a mental image that throws up the similarities or common properties of all the different trees we know. We will call a thing "tree" when it had some specific characteristics, the image of which we have already acquired in our mind on account of our previous experience, perception and exercise of imagination. All our behaviour, verbal, symbolic, motor as well as cognitive are influenced by our concepts.

7. Learning of Principles

It depends on learning of concept formation and other forms of learning. There is a large number of principles that every individual masters in order to function properly in the environment. Most of the classroom learning contributes to the development of principles.

8. Problem Solving

It comes at the highest stage in the hierarchy of learning process. This learning requires the use of the cognitive abilities like reasoning, thinking, the power of observation, discrimination, generalisation, imagination, the ability to infer. draw conclusions and try out novel ways and experimenting. etc., by the learner Details are given separately.

Learning

Learning

Introduction

Learning occupies a very important place in our life. When the child is born, his/her mind is just like a clean slate. As soon as he/she comes in contact with his/her environment, he/she starts reacting and in this process of interaction of thehelp  individual within his/her environment, the
foundation of learning are laid down. It is only with the of the learning that the child learns many things and modifies his/her behaviour. Thus, experience, direct or indirect is found to play a dominant role in moulding and shaping the behaviour of the individual from the very beginning. The changes in behaviour brought about by experience are known as learning. The following are some of the definitions of learning.

Meaning and Definition of Learning 

There are some such tasks which a man learns in his natural and social environment, such as climbing up a tree, swimming in water, speaking a particular language, etc. These activities are called learned actions by psychologists. The process of learning these activities is called learning. Psychologist Woodworth, has defined it in this form. In his words:

The process of acquiring new knowledge and new responses is the process of learning.   

                                                                                                                              -Woodworth

Crow and Crow have taken it in a little wider form. In their words:                     

Learning is the acquisition of habits, knowledge and attitudes.                  -Crow and Crow

But most of the psychologists have defined learning as the process of behavioural change. In the words of Gates and others: 

Learning is the modification of behaviour through experience and training.

                                                                                                                 -Gates and others 

According to psychologist Charles E Skiner, man does not effect a change to his behaviour only for the sake of behavioural change, rather he also adjusts himself with the environment. He has defined learning on the basis of this fact. In his words:

Learning is a process of progressive behaviour adaptation.                    -C.E. Skiner

Hilgard has defined learning keeping these two factors before him. In his words: 

Learning is the process by which behaviour is originated or changed through practice or training.                         -Hilgard

According to Blair, Jones and Simpson, learning is neither behavioural change nor adjustment with the environment by behavioural change. According to them, learning should enable an individual to face the circumstances in the future, beside these two. In their words:

Any change of behaviour which is a result of experience and which causes people to face later situations differently, may be called learning.                      -Blair, Jones and Simpson

Some facts about the learning process:

1. Learning means acquisition of experience.

2. Learning means acquisition, retention and modification of experience. 

3. Learning is a change of behaviour.

4. Learning depends on practice and experience. 

5. Learning is acquisition of habit, skill and knowledge.

6. Learning is a process and not a product.

7. Learning is a continuous process and continues death.

8. Learning is purposive and goal directed.

9. Learning is a creative experience. 

10. Learning is Universal.

Nature of Learning

The nature and general characteristics of learning are as follows:

1. Learning is universal

Learning is not having any boundary. It is not restricted to any particular age, sex, race or cultures. It is applicable to all the living creatures, although, the degree of learning varies from creature to creature.

2. Learning is purposeful and goal directed

Learning is not an aimless activity. It provides clues and hints to the learner that there is something behind in learning and children learn with that hope and aspiration.

3. Learning is a continuous or never-ending process

Learning starts from birth and continues till death. It is a never ending process. At each stage the learner acquires new ideas and achieves something new, which is a continuous process.

4. Learning occurs both formal and informal situations

The child learns many things. He/She acquires new habits, skills and gains new information. Many things the child learns in a formal situation like that of a school. But a great many of these the child learns in informal situation in a family or with his/her friends when he/she is travelling, playing in an incidental manner.

5. Learning is the process of solving problems

In fact, all learning is problem solving. The child learns many thing during the course of time and try to apply all these to achieve a solution for a novel situation. Learning rules and principles help him/her to produce changes in his/her behaviour and abandonment of existing behaviour.

6. Learning is adjustment

Learning is the process of adjustment. The individual must learn to adjust himself/herself to the changes that take place around him/her. It prepares an individual for any adjustment and adaptation that may be necessary.

7. Learning Involves various dimensions of psychological and mental activities

For the effective learning both psychological, e.g.. motivation, Interest and ability and physiological bases, i.e.. nervous systems, brain, spinal cord, glands, etc., are essential. Therefore in schools children must be provided opportunity to learn by doing or learn by activity for effective learning.

8. Learning is more than academic mastery of subjects

In schools we generally think that learning is concerned with subjects and acquisition of information of facts. But learning is beyond to that and we learn different traits or characteristics, attitudes, values, interests, etc., rather than only mastery on academic subjects..

9. Learning is the function of practice

There is a saying that practice makes a man perfect. In this context practice does not mean repeating a response. It is repeated efforts of an individual to react to a situation effectively. Thus, practice help to drop out awkward, unhythmic and unnecessary responses and leads to improvement in learning.

10. Learning is a Process

Through learning modification of behaviour takes place. It constantly enlarges the child's understanding, leads to growth of abilities, perception and intellect. Though the entire learning situation is a very complex process yet the favourable environment can bring desirable and satisfactory growth on the part of the individual which is the ultimate goal of the learning.

11. Difference in learning is due to environment

12. Learning is a self-directed activity

13. Learning may be correct or incorrect

14 Learning is manifold in nature

15. Learning Involves perceptual operation and motor processes

Factors Affecting Influencing/Associated with Learning

The factors which are responsible for bringing about the betterment and improvement in learning or influence or associated with learning are given below :

(a) Maturation

Development of a child takes place because of two basic but complex processes-learning and maturation. Learning is possible only when a certain stage of maturation is reached. Psychologists have suggested that learning is effective if the activities or subject matter is at a rate commensurate with the development of the child.

(b) Motivation

Motivation is the very heart of the learning process. Motivation sets the activity which results in learning or it is the art of stimulating interest in the pupil and gives the direction to learning. Thus the teacher should apply various devices in the class room to motivate the children.

(c) The Organism and Perception

All knowledge is based on some sense perception. The loss of or defects in any sense means that knowledge and learning are impoverished in proportion to the loss. Learning is dependent on the relative perfection of the senses and the general condition of the organism. If there will be organic defects (visual, auditory, focal Infections and adenoids, etc.), then learning will be affected.

(d) Intellectual Ability or Capacity

It is a fact that various species of animals have different capacities to learn. Man is known to have greater capacity to learn then other living things. We know that human beings differ in their abilities to learn. On the basis of the Terman and Merril Intellectual classification we classify them as feeble. minded, normal or in the genius class in terms of their ability to learn. 

(e) Psychological Safety

Learning is a process of interaction in which the learner actively participates in the learning situation. Thus, the learner should be provided psychological satisfaction or safe situation so that he/she can participate freely and safely in the learning process.

(f) Readiness

If a person is ready to learn, the learning process will be more active. Thus the teacher should stimulate and develop the mental readiness in the children for effective learning in addition to seating arrangement, ventilation, light facilities and excessive noise.

(g) Drawing of a Study Schedule

A schedule is often useful in setting up regular habits of study and thus enabling the learner to make maximum use of his/her time and energy. A schedule acts as a challenge, as well as a guide and monitor. Thus drawing of a study schedule makes the learner attentive and persistent in learning.

(h) Attacking the Assignment Vigorously

Learning is an active, effortful process. There is no more effective method of study than merely to read the words of a book passively, waiting for the material somehow to register itself on the "mind". If the learner attack the learning task vigorously he/she can be a successful person than the passive group.

(i) Family Background and Socio-economic Status

Research in the field of family background and socio-economic status proved that learning achievement, attitudes, values and ability of the students are different due to urban and rural environment and socio-economic conditions of the family.

(j) Effect of Age on Learning

Learning capacity varies with age. Age accompanies mental maturation. The teacher, while constructing curriculum should keep in mind the various stage of the development of the child and adopt various methods of instructional process according to the age and grade level of the students.

(k) Environment

The progress and process of learning is very much under the influence of the environment. Therefore, the teacher should see that environment of the institution is congenial and cheerful otherwise it may affect the learning process, if it is not healthy.

(l) Fatigue and Bad Working Conditions

Fatigue is the state in which the organism is exhausted and requires rest. In a state of fatigue, the output is diminished or lowered efficiency or the quality is impaired. Fatigue may be muscular, sensory or mental. This may be due to bad seating arrangement, unhealthy atmosphere, poor environment, poor light, noise and over crowdedness, etc., affects the learning capacity. Similarly, learning is hampered by bad working conditions or distraction both at home and school.

(m) Difficulty, Meaningfulness and Length of Material

It is a fact that more difficult the learning material, the poor is the learning. Therefore, experimental studies have clearly indicated that more meaningful the material, the rapid is the learning. Being meaningful means that the material conveys some sense and has some associations and previous experience with the learner. There is little learning without meaning.

 PIAGET'S DEVELOPMENTAL STAGES

Jean Piaget advanced a quite new theory of development of cognitive abilities. He proposes that cognitive development proceeds through an orderly sequence of stages. The important concept of his theory of cognitive development is not the age at which the child moves from preferred mode of response to another but the fixed progression from one stage to another. The child cannot adopt the strategies of a later stage at an early stage of development without having first acquired and exercised the strategies of earlier stage.

The stages of cognitive development are related in that they represent forms of adaption but these forms are qualitatively different; that is the adaptive functions' are transformed as the child moves from one stage to the next. 

The Stages of Cognitive Development

Jean Piaget divides the stages of cognitive development in the following categories-

(1) The period of sensorimotor adaptation (since birth to 2 years).

The period from birth to two years is marked by an extraordinary development of mind. The infant starts from reflex domination and reaches the stage of sensorimotor schemes in a means to end relationship. The development of this period is very important for future life.

The intellectual development at this age is marked by four fundamental characteristics: (a) Object concept formation, (b) Coordinated space, (c) Objectified causality, and (d) Objectification of time.

The objects exist in the psychological world of an adult irrespective of their physical presence before the adult but in the world of the child they only exist when they are physically present and child looks at them, grasps them and acts with them.

2) The development of symbolic and preconceptual thought (2 to 4 years) 

At the end of sensorimotor period, the child starts dealing with the world by means of ideational representations. By imitation and other forms of behaviour, he demonstrates that he is capable of extending his world beyond here and now. These actions of the child indicate the use of symbols. By the age of 4 years the child develops way of representing the environment in the absence of perceptual cues and will build a set of symbolic schemes.

(3) The period of intuitive thought (4 to 8 years)

At this stage, the child is able to use concepts as stable generalization of his past and present experiences. His reasoning is not logical and is based on intuition rather than on systematic logic. The intuitive thought of the child is mainly concerned with stages or static configurations and neglects transformation. The child talks about this or that momentary static conditions but he cannot adequately link a whole set of successive conditions into an integrated totality by taking into account the transformations which unify them and render them logically coherent.

(4) The period of concrete operations (8 to 12 years) 

Concrete operation means that stage of cognitive development when the child is able to direct his attention away from the static conditions and can focus on the whole set of successive changes that occur in the process of transformation. At this stage the child can reason well. Transformation could return to its starting point. Piaget has given a long list of operations which make possible the handling of numbers in various relations to each other, the arrangement of objects into classes and sub classes and the ordering of objects according to one or more attributes. He has coined a term 'grouping' to describe a set of operations.

(5) The period of formal operations (from 12 years to adolescence) 

At this stage the child's thought process becomes quite systematic and reasonably well-integrated. These qualities of the child's thought process are evident when events are present. Reality guides his contemplation of possibility. He starts a form of hypothetico-deductive reasoning. The use of formal operations is what is called the con- trolling aspects of comprehending.

The child at this stage in his formal thinking can free himself of the here and now in a lawful and systematic way. His wisdom. lies in the masterful administration of the unforeseen. When an adolescent is faced with a problem, he uses formal operations to identify the variables that seem relevant to the solutions and then considers all the possible combinations of these variables.

The hallmark of formal operations period is the development of the ability to think in symbolic terms and comprehend content meaning- fully without requiring physical objects or even visual or other imagery based on past experience with such objects. Formal operations are the logical and mathematical concepts which are used in advanced conceptualization and reasoning etc. that is difficult to represent concretely

Principles of Teaching English

Principles of Teaching English

"A mother tongue is caught not taught a foreign language is taught to be caught."

Mother Tongue is learnt by imitation. Mother Tongue is caught but foreign language is taught to be caught.

In India English is taught both as second language and as a foreign language. The term 'second language' is used because it has become a lingua franca between speakers of widely diverse languages. By English as a "foreign language' is meant that English is taught as a school-subject or on an adult level solely for giving students a foreign language competence. For both, it is essential for English teacher to teach in such a manner that desired goals can be achieved.

There are different approaches for the teaching and learning process of language such a psychological, linguistic and pedagogical principles. These principles of learning a language are based upon keen observation and research and experimentation. These principles are very helpful for the English teachers to raise the standard of English language. Foreign language teachers must keep in mind the following principles to achieve effectiveness in their teaching

1. Principles of Motivation, Interest and Variety

Motivation is the core of learning. It is a psychological process. Motivation, interest and variety are interrelated terms. There is no learning without interest and there is no interest without motivation and there is no motivation without varieties of different physical and mental activities A student can himself learn the language if he is motivated by the teacher to learn the language. If a child is to learn, he must be motivated, There may be two types of motivation

(i) Internal Motivation, (ii) External Motivation.

The internal motivation is related to the internal nature of the individual emotions. Child's own ambitions and desires motivate him. But sometimes, the learner is not internally motivated, there would be the need of extrinsic or external motivation for the learner to achieve the particular objectives of English teaching. External motivation is developed and created by the English teacher in the learner.

The purpose of motivation is to create a zeal to learn something new in language.  Motivation involves need, desire and interest to react. When desire to earn money and desire to learn language bring the response and reaction in individual, motivation takes place. The process goes like this: Internal desire to express ideas → motivation to learn language → learning the mother-tongue. 

2. The Principal of Naturalness

Man has a natural tendency to learn language for self-expression, for communication and, for information. The mother tongue is always learnt easily because there is a natural environment for learning mother tongue. The mother-tongue is spoken in the environment created by family and neighbourhood. From the very beginning the child listens to his parents, brothers, sisters, friends talking in that language. He rises with that language and sleeps with that language. In this way, a natural environment for mother-tongue learning is created around him. He later enlarges his sphere of activity, consequently enlarging the scope and depth of his language. But this is not true with foreign language. The child encounters this language all of a sudden in one of his classes and only for four or six period in a week. Therefore, it becomes difficult for him to learn the language. 

3. The Principle of Exposure 

When the child is provided a conductive and proper environment require for speaking the language when he is exposed to the environment where his mother tongue is spoken and written, he the mother. tongue more rapidly. He finds language exposure at home, school and society. The habits of listening, speaking, reading and writing all the constant practice and exposure which is possible only in a conductive language environment. The mother tongue is spoken in the language environment created by the family, school, neighbourhood and society. In the beginning, the child learns his language from his mother, father, brother, sisters and friends of his age. 

4. The Principle of Habit-Formation

Language learning is a skill which need constant practice and usage language is the instrument of all subjects. So it should be automatic i.e. a habit. Habit is the second nature of man which makes the speech natural

It is much easier for a child to learn his mother-tongue while at home and picks up a working vocabulary rather fast. He specially picks up those words which help him in his day-to-day life. It entails a great deal of practice on his part to understand these structures. Wherever he goes, he finds people speaking the same language, hence he sort of automatically gets into it. Even the learning of a mother-tongue is as much a habit as learning English.  Habit formation includes four types of habits:

(i) Habit of listening. 

(ii) Habit of speaking.

(iii) Habit of writing. According to Palmer, "Language learning is essentially a habit forming process, a process during which we acquire new habits."

Apart from the habits of four skills of language the following habits should be formulated in the students by our English teachers

(i) Habit of Imitating. 

(ii) Habit of Repeating.

(iii) Habit of Spelling.

(iv) Habit of correct use of language.

(v) Habit of correct pronunciation.

(vi) Habit of consulting dictionary. 

(vii) Habit of going of library.

(viii) Habit of reading of newspapers, journals, magazines and story books.

5. The Principle of Using Mother-Tongue

Mother-tongue may be helpful in teaching foreign language. As Robert Paul says in his book "Understanding English"-"When we learn first language, we face the universe directly and learn to clothe it with speech. When we learn a second language we tend to filter the universe through the language already known." Some of the linguists are not in favour of this thinking. They think that mother-tongue create a negative role in teaching a foreign language. But researches establish this fact that the role of mother-tongue facilitate the teaching foreign language. P. Gurrey points out, "The teaching of mother-tongue and teaching of foreign language can support and assist each other." 

(6) The Principles of Learning by Doing

This principle emphasises on acquiring skill by doing. For a foreign language acqui sition written work, pronunciation, reading, spelling writing, hearing P are essential activities. Students should be given a good practice of t these.

(7) The Principle of Multiple Line of Approach

According to th R. N. Safaya', "The term-multiple line implies that one is to proceed P simultaneously from many different points towards the one and the $ same end." So, the teacher should adopt many approaches judicio usly and rationally selected to reach the goal." The different appro aches which can be used are illustrated here:-

(8) The Principle of Accuracy and Correctness 

Accuracy implies to the use of right or exact words. It means that words should be used which impart meaning for contexts. For this the following are imperative :

(a) The selection of words should be right,

(b) Use of words should be economical,

(c) Expression should be impressive.

Correctness stands for accuracy of pronunciation, intonation, spelling, structures and articulation. From the very beginning, the teacher should be both accurate and correct.

(9) The Principle of Concreteness

This principle is based on the assumption that knowledge can be stored in mind permanently. if it is gained through practical experience. A child can remember lotus' more if he has seen the flower himself than when he has not. The teacher, therefore, should begin with concrete things. As P. C. Wren says, "the first words of English should be names of things and those things should be there before him as they are named...... He must say 'book', 'desk' etc. and point to the things he names." For this, the teacher can use either classroom material or should bring with him handly material. Besides nouns, others, e.g. adjectives, pronouns, prepositions, conjunctions, verbs, adverbs should also be taught keeping in mind this principle.

(10) The Principle of Correlation with Life

While teaching, the subject-matter should be related to life, customs, traditions, pecularities and characteristics of the particular society to which the students belong. In this way, teaching can be more meaningful and learning can be transferred to real life situations.

(11) The Principle of Language Aptitude 

Specialists of language like Carroll and Spoont are of the view that, for learning a language, language aptitude is needed. There are some main com ponents of language aptitude which should be developed in students. These components are:

(i) Phonetic Coding-ability to code sound in such a way that it can be remembered.

(ii) Grammar-ability to handle grammar.

(iii) Rote memorization. 

(iv) Inferring linguistic rules, patterns, etc.

These are the various principles of foreign language teaching. If the teacher wants his teaching to be fruitful, if he wants the rate of learning to be accelerated, he must follow these principles in teaching.

(12) The Principle of Aural-Oral Approach 

The child learns speaking his mother tongue before reading and writing it. The beginners should be taught with speech lesson in which words and small sentences are to be heard and listened. Oral practice is the quickest way of learning a language. Oral approach is based on the psychological foundations which must be applied in the beginning stage. 

The following are the advantages of oral speech :-

(i) Promotes fluency of speech

(ii) Lays the foundation of correct Pronunciation

(iii) Sentence is the Unit of Speech the language

(iv) Mastering over functional grammar

(v) Strengthens listening and speaking skills