स्मृति व स्मरण (Memory & Remembering)

Utkarsh Education

स्मृति व स्मरण
Memory & Remembering

"Individuals differ in memory as they do in other abilities."-Woodworth

स्मृति का अर्थ व परिभाषा  

Meaning & Definition of Memory 

स्मृति एक मानसिक क्रिया है, स्मृति का आधार अर्जित अनुभव है, इनका पुनरुत्पादन परिस्थिति के अनुसार होता है। हमारे बहुत से मानसिक संस्कार स्मृति के माध्यम से ही होते हैं।

स्टर्ट एवं ओकडन (Sturt & Oakden,) के अनुसार :- -'स्मृति', एक जटिल शारीरिक और मानसिक प्रक्रिया है, जिसे हम थोड़े से शब्दों में इस प्रकार स्पष्ट कर सकते हैं। जब हम किसी वस्तु को छूते, देखते, सुनते या सूंघते हैं, तब हमारे 'ज्ञान-वाहक तन्तु' (Sensory Nerves) उस अनुभव को हमारे मस्तिष्क के 'ज्ञान-केन्द्र' (Sensory Center) में पहुँचा देते हैं। 'ज्ञान-केन्द्र' में उस अनुभव की 'प्रतिमा' बन जाती है, जिसे 'छाप' (Engram) कहते हैं। यह 'छाप' वास्तव में उस अनुभव का स्मृति चिन्ह (Memory Trace) होती है, जिसके कारण मानसिक रचना के रूप में कुछ परिवर्तन हो जाता है। यह अनुभव कुछ समय तक हमारे 'चेतन मन' में रहने के बाद 'अचेतन मन' (Unconscious Mind) में चला जाता है और हम उसको भूल जाते हैं। उस अनुभव को 'अचेतन मन' में संचित रखने और 'चेतन मन' में लाने की प्रक्रिया को 'स्मृति' कहते हैं। दूसरे शब्दों में, पूर्व अनुभवों को अचेतन मन में संचित रखने और आवश्यकता पड़ने पर चेतन मन में लाने की शक्ति को स्मृति कहते हैं।

1. वुडवर्थ :- जो बात पहले सीखी जा चुकी उसे स्मरण रखना ही स्मृति हैं। "Memory consists in remembering what has previously been fearned"-Woodworth 

2. रायबर्न :- अपने अनुभवों को संचित रखने और उनको प्राप्त करने के कुछ समय बाद चेतना के क्षेत्र में पुनः लाने की जो शक्ति हममें होती है, उसी को स्मृति कहते हैं।" "The power that we have to store our experiences and to bring them into the field of consciousness some time after the experiences have occurred, is termed memory."-Reyburn  

3. जेम्स" स्मृति उस घटना या तथ्य का ज्ञान है, जिसके बारे में हमने कुछ समय तक नहीं सोचा है, पर जिसके बारे में हमको यह चेतना है कि हम उसका पहले विचार या अनुभव कर चुके हैं।" "Memory is the knowledge of an event, or fact, of which, meantime we have not been thinking, with the additional consciousness that we have thought or experienced it before."-James

इन परिभाषाओं का विश्लेषण करने पर यह स्पष्ट होता है कि (1) स्मृति एक आदर्श पुनरावृत्ति है (2) यह सीखी हुई वस्तु का सीधा उपयोग है (3) इसमें अतीत में घटी घटनाओं की कल्पना द्वारा पहचान की जाती है। (4) अतीत के अनुभवों को पुनः चेतना में लाया जाता है।

स्मृतियों के प्रकार 

Kinds of Memories

स्मृति का मुख्य कार्य है—हमें किसी पूर्व अनुभव का स्मरण कराना। इसका अभिप्राय यह हुआ कि प्रत्येक अनुभव के लिए पृथक स्मृति होनी चाहिए। इतना ही नहीं, पर जैसा कि स्टाउट ने लिखा है :-"केवल नाम के लिए पृथक स्मृति नहीं होनी चाहिए, वरन् प्रत्येक विशिष्ट नाम के लिए भी पृथक स्मृति होनी चाहिए।  "There must not only by a separate memory for names, but separate memory for each particular name."-Stout 

1. व्यक्तिगत स्मृति : Personal Memory - इस स्मृति में हम अपने अतीत के व्यक्तिगत अनुभवों को स्मरण रखते हैं। हमें यह सदैव स्मरण रहता है कि संकट के समय हमारी सहायता किसने की थी। 

2. अव्यक्तिगत स्मृति : Impersonal Memory - इस स्मृति में हम बिना व्यक्तिगत अनुभव किए बहुत-सी पिछली बातों को याद रखते हैं। हम इन अनुभवों को साधारणतः पुस्तकों से प्राप्त करते हैं। अतः ये अनुभव सब व्यक्तियों में समान होते हैं। 

3. स्थायी स्मृति Permanent Memory - इस स्मृति में हम याद की हुई बात को कभी नहीं भूलते हैं। यह स्मृति, बालकों की अपेक्षा वयस्कों में अधिक होती है।

4. तात्कालिक स्मृति : Immediate Memory - इस स्मृति में हम याद की हुई बात को तत्काल सुना देते हैं, पर हम उसको साधारणतः कुछ समय के बाद भूल जाते हैं। यह स्मृति सब व्यक्तियों में एक-सी नहीं होती है, और बालकों की अपेक्षा वयस्कों में अधिक होती है।

5. सक्रिय स्मृति: Active Memory - इस स्मृति में हमें अपने पिछले अनुभवों का पुनः स्मरण करने के लिए प्रयास करना पड़ता है। वर्णनात्मक निबन्ध लिखते समय छात्रों को उससे सम्बन्धित तथ्यों का स्मरण करने के लिए प्रयास करना पड़ता है।

6. निष्क्रिय स्मृति Passive Memory- इस स्मृति में हमें अपने पिछले अनुभवो का पुनः स्मरण करने में किसी प्रकार का प्रयास नहीं करना पड़ता है। पढ़ी हुई कहानी को सुनते समय छात्रों को उसकी घटनाएँ स्वतः याद आ जाती हैं। 

7. तार्किक स्मृति : Logical Memory - इस स्मृति में हम किसी बात को भली भाँति सोच-समझकर और तर्क करके स्मरण करते हैं। इस प्रकार प्राप्त किया जाने वाला ज्ञान वास्तविक होता है।

8. यान्त्रिक (रटन्स) स्मृति Rote Memory - इस स्मृति में हम किसी तथ्य को किसी प्रश्न के उत्तर को बिना सोचे समझे रटकर स्मरण करते हैं। पहाड़ों को याद करने और रटने की साधारण विधि यही है। है

9. आदत स्मृति : Habit Memory - इस स्मृति में हम किसी कार्य को बार-बार दोहरा कर और उसे आदत का रूप देकर स्मरण करते हैं। हम उसे जितनी अधिक बार दोहराते हैं, उतनी ही अधिक उसकी स्मृति हो जाती है।

10. शारीरिक स्मृति : Physiological Memory - इस स्मृति में हम अपने शरीर के किसी अंग या अंगों द्वारा किए जाने वाले कार्य को स्मरण रखते हैं। हमें उँगलियों से टाइप करना और हारमोनियम बजाना स्मरण रहता है। 

11. इन्द्रिय अनुभव Sense Impression Memory - इस स्मृति में हम इन्द्रियों का प्रयोग करके अतीत के अनुभवों को फिर स्मरण कर सकते हैं। हम बन्द आँखों से उन वस्तुओं को छूकर, चखकर या सूंघकर बता सकते हैं, जिनको हम जानते हैं। 

12. सच्ची या शुद्ध स्मृति True or Pure Memory - इस स्मृति में हम याद किये हुए तथ्यों का स्वतंत्र रूप से वास्तविक पुनः स्मरण कर सकते हैं। हम जो कुछ याद करते हैं, उसका हमें क्रमबद्ध ज्ञान रहता है। इसीलिए, इस स्मृति को सर्वोत्तम माना जाता है।

स्मृति के अंग

Factors of Memory

स्मृति एक जटिल मानसिक प्रक्रिया है। वुडवर्थ (Woodworth) के अनुसार, स्मृति या स्मरण को पूर्ण क्रिया के निम्नलिखित 4 अंग, पद या खंड होते हैं : -

(1) सीखना: Learning - स्मृति का पहला अंग है— सीखना। हम जिस बात को याद रखना चाहते हैं, उसको हमें सबसे पहले सीखना पड़ता है।

(2) धारण Retention - स्मृति का दूसरा अंग है-धारण। इसका है— सीखी हुई बात को मस्तिष्क में संचित रखना। हम जो बात सीखते हैं, वह कुछ समय के बा हमारे अवेतन में चली जाती है। वहाँ वह निष्क्रिय दशा में रहती है। इस दशा में वह कितने समय तक साचत रह सकती है, यह व्यक्ति की धारण शक्ति पर विशेष निर्भर रहता है। 

(3) पुनः स्मरण Recall - स्मृति का तीसरा अंग है-पुनः स्मरण इसका अर्थ है-सीखी हुई बात को अचेतन मन से चेतन मन में लाना। जो बात जितनी अच्छी तरह धारण की गई है, उतनी ही सरलता से उसका पुनः स्मरण होता है। पर ऐसा सदैव नहीं होता है। भय, चिन्ता, शीघ्रता, परेशानी आदि पुनः स्मरण में बाधा उपस्थित करते हैं। बालक भय के कारण भली-भांति स्मरण पाठ को अच्छी तरह नहीं सुना पाता है। हम जल्दी में बहुत से काम करना भूल जाते हैं।

(4) पहिचान: Recognition स्मृति का चौथा अंग है—पहिचान। इसका अर्थ - है-फिर याद आने वाली बात में किसी प्रकार की गलती न करना। उदाहरणार्थ- हम पाँच वर्ष पूर्व मोहनलाल नामक व्यक्ति से दिल्ली में मिले थे। जब हम उससे फिर मिलते हैं, तब उसके सम्बन्ध में सब बातों का ठीक-ठीक पुनःस्मरण हो जाता है। हम यह जानने में किसी प्रकार की गलती नहीं करते हैं कि वह कौन है, उसका क्या नाम है, हम उससे कब, कहाँ और क्यों मिले थे ? आदि 

अच्छी स्मृति के लक्षण 

Marks of Good Memory

जीवन में वही व्यक्ति सफलता के शिखर पर शीघ्र पहुँचता है जिसकी स्मृति अच्छी होती है। ऐसा व्यक्ति भूतकाल की घटनाओं का स्मरण कर, वर्तमान में उसका लाभ उठाकर,

भविष्य को अच्छा बनाता है। स्टाउट (Stout) के अनुसार, अच्छी स्मृति में निम्नलिखित गुण, लक्षण या विशेषताएँ होती हैं

1. शीघ्र अधिगम Quick Learning- अच्छी स्मृति का पहला गुण है-जल्दी •सीखना या याद होना। जो व्यक्ति किसी बात को शीघ्र सीख लेता है, उसकी स्मृति अच्छी समझी जाती है। 

2. उत्तम धारण-शक्ति Good Retention अच्छी स्मृति का दूसरा गुण है— सीखी हुई बात को बिना दोहराए हुए देर तक स्मरण रखना। जो व्यक्ति एक बात को जितने अधिक समय तक मस्तिष्क में धारण' रख सकता है, उसकी स्मृति उतनी ही अधिक अच्छी होती है। 

3. शीघ्र पुनः स्मरण Quick Recall अच्छी स्मृति का तीसरा गुण है— सीखी हुई बात का शीघ्र याद आना। जिस व्यक्ति को सीखी हुई बात जितनी जल्दी याद आती है, उसकी स्मृति उतनी ही अधिक अच्छी होती है।

4. शीघ्र पहचान Quick Recognition- अच्छी स्मृति का चौथा गुण है— शीघ्र पहचान। किसी बात का शीघ्र पुनःस्मरण ही पर्याप्त नहीं है। इसके साथ यह भी आवश्यक है कि आप शीघ्र ही यह जान जायें कि आप जिस बात को स्मरण करना चाहते हैं, वही बात आपको याद आई है।

5. अनावश्यक बातों की विस्मृति : Forgetting Useless Things अच्छी स्मृति का पांचवां गुण है-अनावश्यक या व्यर्थ की बातों को भूल जाना। यदि ऐसा नहीं है, तो मस्तिष्क को व्यर्थ में बहुत-सी ऐसी बातें स्मरण रखनी पड़ती हैं, जिनकी भविष्य में कभी आवश्यकता नहीं पड़ती है। वकील मुकदमे के समय उससे सम्बन्धित सब बातों को याद रखता है, पर उसके समाप्त हो जाने पर उसमें से अनावश्यक बातों को भूल जाता है।

6. उपयोगिता Serviceableness अच्छी स्मृति का अन्तिम गुण है उपयोगिता इसका अभिप्राय यह है कि वही स्मृति अच्छी होती है, जो अवसर आने पर उपयोगी सिद्ध होती है। यदि परीक्षा देते समय बालक स्मरण की हुई सब बातों को लिखने में सफल हो जाता है, तो उसकी स्मृति उपयोगी है, अन्यथा नहीं।

स्मृति के नियम

Laws of Memory

बी. एन. झा. का मत है : "स्मृति के नियम वे दशाएँ हैं जो अनुभव के पुनःस्मरण में सहायता देती हैं।"

"Laws of memory are conditions which facilitate revival of past experience."-Jha 

झा (Jha) के इस कथन का अभिप्राय है कि हम स्मृति के नियमों को 'स्मरण में सहायता देने वाले नियम' कह सकते हैं। झा (Jha) के अनुसार, ये नियम 3 हैं; यथा :

1. आदत का नियम Law of Habit - इस नियम के अनुसार, जब हम किसी - विचार को बार-बार दोहराते हैं, तब हमारे मस्तिष्क में उसकी छाप इतनी गहरी हो जाती है कि हम में बिना विचारे उसको व्यक्त करने की आदत पड़ जाती है। उदाहरणार्थ, बहुत से लोगों को अद्धे, पौने, ढइये आदि के पहाड़े रटे रहते हैं। इनको बोलते समय उनको अपनी विचार-शक्ति का प्रयोग नहीं करना पड़ता है। बी. एन. झा (B. N. Jha, p. 282) के शब्दों में : "इस नियम को लागू करने के लिए केवल मौखिक पुनरावृत्ति बहुत काफी है। इसका सम्बन्ध यांत्रिक स्मृति (Rote Memory) से है।"

2. निरन्तरता का नियम Law of Perseveration - इस नियम के अनुसार, सीखने की प्रक्रिया में जो अनुभव विशेष रूप से स्पष्ट होते हैं, वे हमारे मस्तिष्क में कुछ समय तक निरन्तर आते रहते हैं। अतः हमें उनको स्मरण रखने के लिए किसी प्रकार का प्रयत्न नहीं करना पड़ता है। उदाहरणार्थ, किसी मधुर संगीत को सुनने या किसी दर्दनाक घटना को देखने के बाद हम लाख प्रयत्न करने पर भी उसको भूल नहीं पाते हैं। कालिन्स व ड्रेवर के शब्दों में :- "निरन्तरता का नियम तात्कालिक स्मृति में महत्त्वपूर्ण कार्य करता है।"

3. परस्पर सम्बन्ध का नियम : Law of Association- इस नियम को 'साहचर्य का नियम' भी कहते हैं। इस नियम के अनुसार, जब हम एक अनुभव को दूसरे अनुभव से सम्बन्धित कर देते हैं तब उनमें से किसी एक का स्मरण होने पर हमें दूसरे का स्वयं ही स्मरण हो जाता है; उदाहरणार्थ, जो बालक गांधीजी के जीवन से परिचित हैं, उनको सत्याग्रह के सिद्धान्तों या 'भारत छोड़ो' आंदोलन से सरलतापूर्वक परिचित कराया जा सकता है। गाँधीजी के जीवन से इन घटनाओं का सम्बन्ध होने के कारण बालकों को एक घटना का स्मरण होने पर दूसरी घटना अपने आप याद आ जाती है। स्टर्ट एवं ओकडन (Sturt & Oakden,) के अनुसार :-"एक तथ्य और दूसरे तथ्यों में जितने अधिक सम्बन्ध स्थापित किये जाते हैं, उतनी ही अधिक सरलता से उस तथ्य का स्मरण होता है।"के बाद हम लाख प्रयत्न करने पर भी उसको भूल नहीं पाते हैं। कालिन्स व ड्रेवर के शब्दों में :- "निरन्तरता का नियम तात्कालिक स्मृति में महत्त्वपूर्ण कार्य करता है।"

4. विचार - साहचर्य का सिद्धान्त : Principle of Association of Ideas - विचार- साहचर्य' का सिद्धान्त अति प्रसिद्ध है। इसका अर्थ है-दो या अधिक विचारों का इस प्रकार सम्बन्ध कि उनमें से एक की याद आने पर दूसरे की स्वयं याद आना। उदाहरणार्थ, दूध फैल जाने पर बालक रोता है। वह पहले कभी दूध फैला चुका है जिसकी वजह से उस पर डाँट पड़ चुकी है और वह रो चुका है। अतः जब दुबारा दूध फैलता है, तब उसे डाँट पड़ने की अपने-आप याद आ जाती है और वह रोने लगता है। इस सिद्धान्त का स्पष्टीकरण करते हुए भाटिया ने लिखा है :-"विचार-साहचर्य एक प्रसिद्ध सिद्धान्त है, जिसके अनुसार एक विचार किसी दूसरे विचार या विचारों का, जिनका हम पहले अनुभव कर चुके हैं, स्मरण दिलाता है।"

स्मरण करने की विधियाँ

Methods of Memorizing 

मनोवैज्ञानिकों ने स्मरण करने की ऐसी अनेक विधियों की खोज की है, जिनका प्रयोग करने से समय की बचत होती है। इनमें से अधिक महत्त्वपूर्ण निम्नांकित है :

1. पूर्ण विधि : Whole Method - इस विधि में याद किए जाने वाले पूरे पाठ को आरम्भ से अन्त तक बार-बार पढ़ा जाता है। यह विधि केवल छोटे और सरल पाठों या कविताओं के ही लिए उपयुक्त है।

2. खण्ड विधि : Part Method - इस विधि में याद किए जाने वाले पाठ को कई खण्डों या भागों में बाँट दिया जाता है। इसके बाद उन खण्डों को एक-एक करके याद किया जाता है। इस विधि का दोष यह है कि आगे के खण्ड याद होते जाते हैं और पीछे के भूलते जाते हैं। 

3. मिश्रित विधि : Mixed Method - इस विधि में पूर्ण और खण्ड विधियों का साथ-साथ प्रयोग किया जाता है। इसमें पहले पूरे पाठ को आरम्भ से अन्त तक पढ़ा जाता है। फिर उसे खण्डों में बाँटकर, उनको याद किया जाता है। अन्त में, पूरे पाठ को आरम्भ से अन्त तक फिर पढ़ा जाता है। यह विधि कुछ सीमा तक पूर्ण और खंड विधियों से अच्छी है।

4. प्रगतिशील विधि : Progressive Method - इस विधि में पाठ को अनेक खण्डों में विभाजित कर लिया जाता है। सर्वप्रथम, पहले खण्ड को याद किया जाता है, उसके बाद पहले और दूसरे खण्ड को साथ-साथ याद किया जाता है। फिर पहले, दूसरे और तीसरे खण्ड को याद किया जाता है। इसी प्रकार, जैसे-जैसे स्मरण करने के कार्य में प्रगति होती जाती है, वैसे-वैसे एक नया खण्ड जोड़ दिया जाता है। इस विधि का दोष यह है कि इसमें पहला खण्ड सबसे अधिक स्मरण किया जाता है और उसके बाद के क्रमशः कम ।

5. अन्तरयुक्त विधि : Spaced Method - इस विधि में पाठ को थोड़े-थोड़े अन्तर या अनय के बाद याद किया जाता है। यह अन्तर एक मिनट का भी हो सकता है और चौबीस घण्टे का भी। यह विधि 'स्थायी स्मृति' (Permanent Memory) के लिए अति उत्तम है। वुडवर्थ का मत है : अन्तरयुक्त विधि से स्मरण करने में सर्वोनम परिणाम होता है ।

6. अन्तरहीन विधि :  Unspaced Method - इस विधि में पाठ को स्मरण करने के के लिए समय में अन्तर नहीं किया जाता है। यह विधि 'अन्तरयुक्त विधि' की उल्टी है और उससे अधिक प्रभावशाली है।

7. सक्रिय विधि : Active Method - इस विधि में स्मरण किये जाने वाले पाठ को बोल-बोलकर याद किया जाता है। यह विधि छोटे बच्चों के लिए अच्छी है, क्योंकि इससे हैं उनका उच्चारण ठीक हो जाता है।

8. निष्क्रिय विधि : Passive Method - यह विधि, 'सक्रिय विधि' की उल्टी है। इसमें स्मरण किए जाने वाले पाठ को बिना बोले मन-ही-मन याद किया जाता है। यह विधि अधिक आयु वाले बालकों के लिए अच्छी है।

9. स्वर विधि : Recitation Method - इस विधि में याद किए जाने वाले पाठ को लय से पढ़ा जाता है। यह विधि छोटे बच्चों के लिए उपयोगी है, क्योंकि उनको गा-गाकर पढ़ने में आनन्द आता है।

10. रटने की विधि : Method of Cramming - इस विधि में पूरे पाठ को रट लिया जाता है। इस विधि का दोष बताते हुए जेम्स ने लिखा है :- इस विधि से जो बातें स्मरण कर ली जाती हैं, वे अधिकांश रूप में शीघ्र ही विस्मृत हो जाती हैं।"

11. निरीक्षण विधि : Method of Observing - इस विधि में याद किए जाने वाले पाठ का पहले भली प्रकार निरीक्षण या अवलोकन कर लिया जाता है। यदि बालक को संख्याओं की कोई सूची याद करनी है, तो वह पहले इस बात का निरीक्षण कर ले कि ये निश्चित क्रम में हैं। इस विधि के उचित प्रयोग के विषय में वुडवर्थ  ने लिखा है :- "पाठ को एक बार पढ़ने के बाद उसकी रूपरेखा को और दूसरी कर उसकी विषय-वस्तु को विस्तार से याद करना चाहिए।"

12. क्रिया-विधि : Method of Learning by Doing- इस विधि में स्मरण की जाने वाली बात को साथ-साथ किया भी जाता है। यह विधि बालक की अनेक ज्ञानेन्द्रियों कोएक साथ सक्रिय रखती है। अतः उसे पाठ सरलता और शीघ्रता से स्मरण हो जाता है।

13. विचार- साहचर्य की विधि : Method of Association of Ideas - इस विधि में स्मरण की जाने वाली बातों का ज्ञात बातों से भिन्न प्रकार से सम्बन्ध स्थापित कर लिया जाता है। ऐसा करने से स्मरण शीघ्रता से होता है और स्मरण की हुई बात बहुत समय तक याद रहती है। जेम्स  का मत है :-"विचार, साहचर्य उत्तम चितर द्वारा उत्तम स्मरण की विधि है।"

14. साभिप्राय स्मरण विधि : Method of Intentional Memorizing - पाठ को याद करने के लिए चाहे जिस विधि का प्रयोग किया जाये, पर यदि बालक उसको याद करने संकल्प या निश्चय नहीं करता है, तो उसको पूर्ण सफलता नहीं मिलती है। वुडवर्थ ने ठीक है लिखा है :-"यदि कोई भी बात याद की जानी है, तो याद करने का निश्वय आवश्यक है। The will to learn is necessary, if any learning is to accomplished."--Woodworth 

Maslow's Hierarchy of Needs or Maslow's Theory of Self-Actualization

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Maslow's Hierarchy of Needs

or

Maslow's Theory of Self-Actualization

The theory of self-actualization was developed by Abraham Maslow (1954). Maslow has presented his ideas in Maslow Theory, also known as Maslow need theory, through a journal A theory of human motivation in 1943 and after this magazine in his famous book Motivation and Personality of Humans. written in relation to the sequential requirements of. It is known as the most important theory of motivation in psychology and this theory of Maslow is also known as Need Hierarchy Model. His approach to understand human personality and motivation is different from other psychologists. He put forth the theory that man's basic needs are arranged in a "hierarchy". The appearance of one need generally depends on the satisfaction of the others. They are closely related to each other and may be arranged from the lowest to the highest development of the personality. The five sets of basic needs is given in hierarchy as follows:

Maslow's Hierarchical Structure of Needs

1. Physiological Needs

While the physiological needs, i.e., the need for the food or hunger, thirst, sex, etc., are necessary for survival are at the bottom of the structure the psychological needs, i.e., self actualization are at the top. Starting from the satisfaction of the physiological needs, every individual strives for the satisfaction of the other needs of a higher order and this striving provides motivation for his/her behaviour. In this way the motivational behaviour of a person is always dominated not by his/her satisfied needs but by his/her unsatisfied wants, desires and needs.

2. Safety Needs

When the basic needs are gratified or successfully fulfilled then safety needs become a dominant force in the personality of the individual. It means maintaining order and security and concern about their future safety. Hoarding money. purchase buildings, land and invest in LIC, etc., belongs to safety need and feeling psychologically secure.

3. Belongingness and Love Needs

When these needs are gratified the third need like belongingness and love need becomes operational. The individual is interested in making intimate relationship with other members of the society, being an accepted member of an organized group and interested to identify with the group life. But in big cities, people living in the same building do not know the next door neighbour and have no social life.

4. Self - Esteem Needs or Independence

The fourth order of needs are esteem need. It means reputation, self respect, prestige, self-regard, status and social success and fame. One feels hurt when his/her self respect is injured. There are many status symbols in the society which give the feelings of self-esteem as possessing a house, land or bank balance, titles of honour and automobile, etc. Another type of esteem need is the need to feel superior to others. This need is gratified by purchasing of items as good and costly clothes. Maslow believed that suffient gratification of the esteem needs lessens their dominating force in a person's life and enabling him/her to move in the direction of self-actualization.

5. Self - Actualization 

The highest need is self-actualization. An individual can actualize his/her potentialities as a human being only after fulfilling the higher level needs life love and esteem. Maslow writes that "A musician must make music, an artist must paint. a poet must write poetry, if he/she is to be ultimately at peace with himself/herself. What a man can be, he must be. He/She must be true to his/her own nature. This need we may call self-actualization."

When an individual is creative, non-conformists have sense of humour, keep means and ends distinguishable, democratic outlook, appreciate basic goods of life, high degree of spontaneity and simplicity, detachment, autonomous and accept themselves with others are the characteristics of self actualizers.

Thus the fulfilment of self-actualization is a must for an individual otherwise he/she will feel discontented and restless unless he/she strives for what he/she is fitted for.

Motivation

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Motivation 

Meaning and Definition of Motivation

Motivation is commonly meant to be encouraged for doing an activity, in this sense it symbolizes a process. However in the field of psychology, this term is used in two forms, as a process and as a product. As a process, it is used in the form of such a psychophysical process which inculcates such energy in an individual that he is encouraged to do a particular task. This process has a unique synthesis of affective and conative domains; in it, an individual becomes eager emotionally, then this eagerness takes the form of energy and fills encouragement and vigour in him, and ultimately, it inspires him to do a particular task. As a product, it is used in the form of that energy or power which is created from affective eagerness and which inspires an individual to do a particular work.

Historically, the word motivation comes from the Latin root 'movers' which means to move. It means motivation is the process of arousing movement in the organism which is produced and regulated through the release of energy within the tissues.

Different psychologists have defined this in different ways. 

1. Good has defined: Motivation is the process of arousing, sustaining and regulating an activity. 

2. Good, Blair, Jones and Simpson have defined : Motivation is the process of in which the learner's internal energies or needs are directed towards various goal objects in his environment. 

3. F.J. Medonald defined: Motivation is an energy change within the person characterized by affective arousal and anticipatory goal reaction.

4. Guilford defined "A motive is a particular internal factor or condition that tends to initiate and to sustain activity". Thus motivation includes all those internal conditions which begin an activity or sustain it.

5. Bernard defined "Motivation refers to all those phenomena which are involved in the stimulation of action towards particular objectives where previously there was little or no movement towards those goals". 

6. Atkinson defined "Motivation is the arousal of tendency to act or to produce one or more effects".

Meaning and Definitions of Motives

The factors which inculcate motivation in an individual towards doing an activity are called motives. Motives are generally divided into two classes internal motives and external motives.

By internal motives is meant physiological or biological motives in an individual, as self-defence, hunger, love, sex.

By external motives is meant environmental or psychological motives of an individual, as self-esteem, social level and aspiration for attaining a particular achievement.

So, motives can be defined in the following form:

Motives are those internal and external conditions of a person which motivate him to perform a particular task and keep him active until the realization of objective.

Theories of Motivation

Different psychologists have opined differently about the inculcation of motivation in people. These opinions are recognized as theories of motivation. Some of the important ones are as follows:

1. Instinct Theory: This theory was laid down by McDougall According to this theory, each behaviour of man is governed by his instincts, the emotions inherent behind instincts work as motives. In the context of this theory the first thing is that the psychologists are not in agreement about the number of instincts, and second, this theory does not stand on its own test. Instincts are identical in all individuals, then their behaviour too should be identical, but so is not the case.

2. Psychoanalytic Theory: This theory was propounded by Freud According to this theory, there are two basic factors of the motivation that influences man's behaviour instincts and unconscious mind According to Freud, basically there are only two instincts-life instind (eros) and death instinct (thanatos) which incline an individual toward constructive or destructive behaviour respectively. His unconscious mind also influences his behaviour unknowingly. In the context of the theory, the first thing is that the views of Freud regarding instinct are n acceptable to psychologists, and secondly, human behaviour is governed not by unconscious mind alone, but also by his sub-conscious mind and conscious mind.

3. Drive Theory: This theory was laid down by Klark L. Hull. According to this theory, physical needs of man create stress in him. which is called drive in psychological terminology, and these drives motivate an individual to work in a particular way later. Later the psychologists added psychological needs to these physical needs also, yet this theory remains incomplete in itself because this does not explain the higher cognitive behaviour of man.

4. Incentive Theory: This theory was laid down by Bolles and Pfaffman. According to this theory, man is influenced by the object, situation or activity located in his environment to act. They have considered all these factors in the environment as incentive. According to them, incentives are of two types-positive and negative. Positive incentives, such as food and water, push an individual towards the goal, while negative incentives, such as punishment and electric shock, prevent an individual from proceeding towards the goal. Because this theory lays emphasis only on external factors, so it is incomplete in itself.

5. Physiological Theory: This theory was propounded by Morgan. According to this theory, motivation is not created by any external stimulus, rather it is created due to the changes occurring in the physiological systems within the body. This theory overlooks the effect of environmental factors on man, so it is also incomplete in itself.

6. Need Theory: This theory was propounded by Maslow. According to this theory, human behaviour is inspired by his needs. Maslow has presented needs in a particular sequence. According to Maslow, so long man does pot fulfill his needs of one level, he does not proceed towards the needs of the next level. This is true for Maslow to say that man is motivated by his needs, but this is not true that man meets his needs in a particular sequence. Therefore, this theory is also incomplete in itself.

Functions of Motivation

Motivation has four fundamental functions in learning. These are:

(a) Motivation energizes the behaviour of the organism (the child) and arouse him/her for action (initiates the activity).

(b) Motivation direct and regulate our behaviour (the child's activity).

(c) Motivation controls behaviour and does not allow the child to move in haphazard way.

(d) Motivation directed toward a selective goal (not all the activities) which the individual sets for himself/ herself. It provides satisfaction after completion or achievement of goals.

Types of Motivation

Different classifications of motives have been effected from different view points. These are innate or intransic or natural and outward or acquired or extransic or artificial. When motivation arise from within the individual and is not linked with external forces and motivate the individual to perform some task or behave in a manner is called intransic motivation or Motivation is intrinsic when an individual recognises an activity as self-rewarding or derives satisfaction from the activity. Here motives come directly from within the person and no external pressures are necessary.

Similarly when outside forces such as praise/blame. rewards/punishment, and competition/cooperation, etc.. compel the individual and provide incentives to achieve the goal is called extrinsic motivation. Or when a child does not perceive the inherent value in an activity and pursues the activity not for its own sake but for the sake of some external reward is called extransic motivation.

Functions of Motivation

Motivation has four fundamental functions in learning. These are:

(a) Motivation energizes the behaviour of the organism (the child) and arouse him/her for action (initiates the activity).

(b) Motivation direct and regulate our behaviour (the child's activity).

(c) Motivation controls behaviour and does not allow the child to move in haphazard way.

(d) Motivation directed toward a selective goal (not all the activities) which the individual sets for himself/ herself. It provides satisfaction after completion or achievement of goals.

Techniques of Classroom Motivation

Psychologists have developes several techniques in order to keep students fully motivated. We shall discuss some special techniques in brief.

1. Understanding the Degree of Maturation Required for Learning

2. Bringing Assignments within Child's Experience

3. Respect for Personality of the Child, Appealing to Ego-Maximization

4. Securing Attention, Creating Interest and Enthusiasm

5. Attitude In Motivation

6. Praise and Reproof In Learning

7. Emphasis on Positive Guidance

8. Clear Assignments and Definite Goals

9. Encouraging Self Motivation among Children

10. Making Unconscious and Semiconscious Needs and Wants Conscious

11. Development of Self-Appraisal

12. Developing Values, Ideals and Life Goals

13. Setting a Good Example

14. Emphasis on Group Dynamics

15. Competition vs. Cooperation

16. Participation Through Participation

17. Appealing to as Many Motives as Possible and to the Total Personality

18. Token Economy

19. Knowledge of Progress

20. Effective Repetition and Active Participation.

Factors of Motivation

Forgetting

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Forgetting

 Meaning and Definition of Forgetting

Generally when a learnt material or activity cannot be recalled, it is called forgetting. However, in psychological terminology, the facts, incidents or experiences that the brain retains in the form of memory traces and is unable to bring to the conscious mind again when needed this mental process is called forgetting. Some psychologists have term it negative memory also. Psychologists have defined forgetting in their on way, 

Munn has defined in his words: Forgetting is failing to retain or to be unable to recall what has been acquired.

Drever has defined in his words: Forgetting means failure at any time to recall an experience, when attempting to do so or to perform an action previously learned.

Causes of Forgetting

Psychologists have conducted studies to find out why the experiences, knowledge and activities that have been learnt are forgotten. On the basis of their studies, they have laid down some theories of forgetting which are called theoretical causes. They have also located some general causes, which are called general causes. We shall present them here in brief: 

Theoretical Causes

Psychologists have accepted three theoretical causes of forgetting: 

1. Theory of Disuse: The psychologists who favour this theory say that when an individual learns something, some memory traces are formed in his brain, and he memorizes the learnt material or activities with the help of these memory traces; however, if these are not repeated, these memory traces are erased with the passage of time and the individual forgets the learnt material or activities. Of course, an individual is not able to forget some motor skills, as riding a bicycle, driving a car, swimming, etc. even without practice over a long period of time. In addition to this, the material or activity that has been over-learnt by him, he does not forget that also, such as the national anthem learnt during childhood. Some bitter experiences are also remembered the whole life, as some fire accident, drowning in water, being insulted by somebody, etc.

2. Theory of Interference: The proponents of this theory say that the mental activities performed just before and after learning a new Content or activity interfere in its memorization. The first President of the Stanford University, D.S. Jordan commanded mastery over the names of  species of fishes, but as he learnt the name of an individual, he forgot the name of one species of fish. This interesting tale supports the concept of Interference in memorization. These interferences are of two types:

(i) Retroactive Inhibition: The newly learnt material affects the previously learnt material, even normal walking after learning also inhibits memorizing. Sleeping after learning has better results.

(ii) Proactive Inhibition: Under proactive inhibition, the previously learnt material interferes in learning the new material. It has been found in tests that proactive inhibition hinders less in recalling the meaningful material, but more in recalling meaningless material. 

If the material is learnt more than the limit, then retroactive and proactive inhibition becomes negligible.

3. Theory of Repression: According to Freud, an individual attempts to forget displeasing experiences in his life because they create anxiety whenever they are memorized. If the impulses that create anxiety are repressed fully and are prevented from coming into the consciousness, then it is called repression. The process of repressions is adopted by the individual himself, or it can be adopted directly by others. Many unnecessary things inculcate anxiety, fear, grief, etc., it is necessary to forget them. It is also necessary for some mentally ill individuals to forget, which is done by the repression process. 

General Causes

Following are the general causes of forgetting:

1. Ill-health: An individual forgets the learnt things due to ill-health.

2. Mental Illness: The learnt things are forgotten due to mental illnesses, mental instability, mental hurt, mental conflict, etc.

3. Nature of Learnt Material: If the learnt material is simple and meaningful, it is memorized over a long time; on the other hand, complex and meaningless material is forgotten soon.

4. Quantity of Learnt Material: If the quantity of learnt material is more, then there is a possibility of forgetting it fully or partially. This also depends on the nature of the material.

5. Methods of Learning: The material learnt by uninteresting methods is forgotten sooner.

 
6. Incomplete Learning: If a material is learnt incompletely, then it is forgotten sooner.

7. Time Interval: When a long interval of time has elapsed after having learnt a material and it is hardly used in the interval, then the material is generally forgotten.

8. Disuse: Disinterest, inattention and disuse of a material cause the forgetting of a material.

Means of Minimizing Forgetting

All those measures are adopted for diminishing forgetting which are applied for enhancing memory. These measures are as follows:

(1) A learner should be physically healthy.

(2) He should be free from mental illnesses. 

(3) He should be free from mental hurts and mental conflicts.

(4) The utility of the material to be learnt should be made clear to the learner.

(5) Most suitable methods should be used for learning.

(6) The learnt material should be repeated. 

(7) The teacher's behaviour should be favourable.

Importance of Forgetting in Education

Forgetting is a mental process contrary to memorization. Generally, memorization is important in the life of every individual, but forgetting is also useful in life. Accepting the importance of forgetting. Collins and Drever have written:

It is true that forgetting is the opposite of remembering, but from a practical point of view, forgetting is almost as useful as remembering.

Forgetting is also very important in the field of education. Its importance can be discussed in the following points:

(1) The memory capability of students is limited and only limited experiences can be retained in it; so it is necessary to retain new useful things and to forget useless things.

(2) A student learns new content in the class, if he does not forget the unsuitable material learnt in the class, then it is not possible to the new material and recall it when needed.

(3) If all experiences of life are accumulated in the brain of students, then they would be unable to organize them properly and it would become a burden for them.

(4) An individual succeeds in memorization when he accumulates useful things and forgets useless things: the existence of these two contradictory types of things would create a situation of mental conflict, which can make him forget even useful things.

(5) There are many such experiences and incidents in life which create suffering and tension, so it is better to forget such experiences and incidents.

 (6) It is very necessary to forget the past in order to improve the future life.

Memory

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Memory

Meaning and Definition of Memory

Generally the ability to recall a learned content or an activity when is needed is called memory, but in psychological terminology, memory a mental process which is found in each organism in more or less measure. Psychologists have explained that when a person perceives object, place or person, or receives any other experience by any other sense organ, then these are accumulated in his unconscious mind in the form of symbol, mark or code. In their view, memory is the process of bringing these accumulated experiences in the unconscious mind to the conscious mind when needed. For example, when an individual watches an incident, then it is accumulated in his unconscious mind fully a partially. If due to any reason, this incident is recalled by the individual or he is reminded about it, then this incident occurs to the conscious mind the same form again.

Psychologists have defined memory in their own ways. We shall present the most suitable ones. 

In the words of Woodworth: Memory is the direct use of what is learned.

Hillgard has defined : Memory is that mental process which involves recalling the previously learned knowledge, experience or skill.

Stages of Memory

Psychologists have mentioned three stages or components of memory 一

first coding, second storage and third retrieval 

1. Coding: In coding,an  individual receives information or experience in the form of a definite code in his nervous system. In other words, forming of memory traces is coding. It is also called registration. 

2. Storage: The second stage of memory is storage. At this stage, the experiences obtained by coding are stored for some time. It is also called retention. 

3. Retrieval: At this stage, the necessary information or experiences are retrieved out of the stored information or experiences. This also called recall or remembering.

Steps of Memory Process

Woodworth has mentioned four steps of the memory process:

1. Learning: We can memorize a content only when we have learnt it before. According to Guilford, in order to memorize a content well, clear learning in the field essential. An individual should learn and memorize a content in order to increase the ability to memorize, he should relate new knowledge with previous knowledge and the lesson should be repeated again and again.

2. Retention: The second most important component of the memory process is retention of the learnt content. By retention is meant to store the content in the brain over a long period of time. When we learn content, the brain becomes active and some engrams are embossed in which are called memory traces. These traces exist in the conscious brain for sometime and then they shift to the unconscious mind. When it is needed to memorize a content, then these traces are transferred from the unconscious mind to the conscious mind and the individual becomes able to present the learnt knowledge again.

Psychologists say that retention power is innate and the environment does not play any special role in its development. Retention of a content depend on the following factors: 

(i) Physical and Mental Health: An individual who is physically and mentally healthy keeps something remembered over a long time, but in case of ill-health, his power of retention is weakened.

(ii) Mental Ability: Mental ability of different individuals is different, so their power of retention is also different. An individual with more intelligence has more retention ability than an individual with less intelligence. 

(iii) Nature of Subject Matter: The ability of retention also depends on this fact whether the material to be retained is simple or complex. If the material is meaningful for an individual and is useful for the future, then it is retained in the brain over a long period of time and if this learning is meaningless for him then he forgets it sooner.

(iv) Nature of Learning: The ability of retention also depends on this fact which method was used for learning and for how long it was done. If learning has been done by self actively, then the learnt material remains in the brain for a long time. The more is the amount of learning the more becomes the ability to retention. When an individual over-learns something, then it is retained by him all his life, such as the national anthem.

3. Recall: By recall is meant to bring the past experiences from the unconscious mind to the conscious mind again. This activity occurs when memory traces become active. These past experiences are brought to the conscious mind in the absence of original stimuli. If past experiences have not been retained well, then it is difficult to recall them. Recall is tested by paired association method.

In addition to the power of retention, recall also depends on his emotional state; a content learnt during the state of nervousness or fear are not memorized well. It is often seen that some candidates come for interview with a great preparation, but they say after the interview that they forgot everything due to panic or nervousness.

4. Recognition: Recognition is that ability by which past experiences or learnt facts are associated with or isolated from other facts to understand them clearly. For example, when we meet a man for the first time, then a reflection is formed in our brain by memory traces When we meet that man again years later, these memory traces become prominent and we become able to recognize that man again.Though recognition is a common experience, yet it is a complex and mysterious This process occurs automatically.

Characteristics of Good Memory

Good memory has the following characteristics: 

1. Quick Learning: A child with good memory learns something very quickly and learns the lesson on mere one reading.

2. Organization of the Learnt Content: Memory is no bag or box in which data are placed disorderly. We can recall a learnt material properly only when it has been stored in the brain in a systematic manner. A man with a good memory stores data in his brain in a systematic manner and is able to recall it when needed.

3. Good Retention: A man with a good memory has a good ability of retention also; the material he learns is retained in his memory for a long time.

4. Quick Recall: A man with a good memory has a quality that he recalls the learnt material rapidly. He presents the retained content without any delay if needed.

5. Accurate Recognition: A man with a good memory recognizes the previously known things.

6. Forgetting Unnecessary Material: A man with a good memory only retains necessary facts and forgets unnecessary facts.

Types of Memory

Due to individual differences, all individuals are not equally able to learn, retain and recognize. An individual can learn a material faster and retains it over a long time, while others may not be able to do so. Considering all aspects of memory, psychologists have determined the following forms of memory:

1. Immediate Memory : By immediate memory is meant learning a fact or information and repeat it soon after. There is much possibility of forgetting this type of memory. 

2. Long Term Memory: When a fact or experience is retained for a long period of time, it is called long term memory. 

3. Rote Memory: By rote memory is meant the ability to learn a fact without having understood it and present it verbatim when needed. Small children learn many rhymes by rote memory without having understood their meaning, and they repeat them whenever they are asked to.

4. Logical Memory: By logical memory is meant to learn a fact after having understood and reasoned it and present it when needed.

5. Active Memory: By active memory is meant to relearn experiences voluntarily and to present them well. Students write their answer books in the examination hall on the basis of their active memory.

6. Passive Memory: When past experiences are recalled without any active effort, it is called passive memory. This type of memory is not purposeful; for example, on naming the elephant recalling dark colour and massive size. 

7. Mechanical Memory: This memory is also called physiological or habitual memory. When an action is done by a body part, its repeated activity habituates that body part and an individual does not have to make any specific effort for doing that action. A driver of a vehicle does not have to pressure his brain to control it, his hands and feet work automatically.

8. True Memory: When a content is recalled independently, it is called true memory. This memory is motivated by interest and laws of association. The content is retained in this type of memory in a well organized manner which facilitates recall. This memory is considered to be the best type in the field of education.

Methods of Memorization

Learning is a part of memory, but there is a difference in the methods of these two. Following are the chief methods of memorization :

1. Whole Method: When a child memorizes the whole content together, then this method of memorization is called the whole method The whole method is effective for talented students. 

2. Part Method: When a child learns a content by dividing it into several parts, this type of memorization is called the part method. This method is suitable for dull students.

3. Mixed Method: When a child applies both of the whole and the part methods in memorizing a large content, then it is called the mixed method.

4. Spaced Method: When a child takes rest in between his memorization of a content, then it is called the spaced method. This method is good for permanent memory. This method causes less fatigue and gives an opportunity to learn with entire capability.

5. Unspaced Method: When a child learns a content without having spaced his learning, then it is called the unspaced method. In this method the content is repeated again and over again without any rest in between. This method is good for immediate memory.

6. Active Method: In this method, the content is learnt by speaking. This method is suitable for children of primary level. Memorizing by speaking also helps to improve the pronunciation. 

7. Passive Method: In this method, a child repeats the content in his mind without speaking. This method is suitable for the students of higher classes and adults.

8. Method of Association of Ideas: In this method, the material to be learnt is associated with other things. It helps to memorize the material rapidly and it is retained in the memory over a prolonged period.

9. Recitation Method: In this method, a child recites the content by speaking and then recalls it after closing the book. Gates, in his experiments, found the recitation method as more useful as compared to continuous reading.

Factors Influencing Memory

Several factors influence memory, the important of which are as follows:

1. Physical Health: Physical health has its effect on memory. Unhealthy children have a weak memory.

2. Mental Health: A child with good mental health has a good memory. The children who are suffering from any mental illness, fear, anxiety or other mental defects do not have a good memory.

3. Motivation: A motivated child learns faster and retains the learnt material over a long time and is able to recall it soon when needed.

4. Nature of Learning Material: A child is able to learn when the material is systematic and comprehensible.

5. Willingness to Learn: When a learner wants to learn, he would be able to learn the content, else not. The more intense the willingness to learn, the sooner occurs the memorization.

6. Interest and Attention: A child learns faster if he is interested and attentive. 

7. Memory Method: The method that a child uses for memorization has influenced over the process of memorization. Systematic and strong content can be learnt by the whole method, while the part method is suitable for difficult material.

8. Practice and Repetition: The more is the practice and repetition of the content, the more permanently it is retained in the memory. 

9.Teaching Methods: The teaching method adopted by a teacher also has an effect on the memorization.

10. Teacher's Behaviour: Affectionate and favourable behaviour of the teacher has favourable effect on a child's memorization.

Means of Improving Memory of Children

Most psychologists opine that memory is inherent and it not possible to increase it. However, some psychologists view the that improvement in memory can be effected to some extent. 

Some of the important measures are as follows: 

(1) Rapid memorization takes place when the material is presented in a systematic manner according to the level of children, and more material can be learnt in less time.

(2) Paying attention to the content helps to understand it well and it is memorized sooner.

(3) Memory can be increased when new knowledge is related to the previous knowledge.

(4) The ability to memorize is enhanced when the material is purposeful.

(5) When the material is presented logically, the retention power is enhanced.

(6) Frequent repetition can help to increase the ability to retention over a long period of time. 

(7) Following the laws of association in learning and memorizing enhances the power to retention.

(8) Today psychologists and games specialists have invented such games and tools the repeated use of which increases memory.

(9) Memory power can be increased by yogic activities, pranayama, meditation, etc. It has been proved by experiments that pranayama and meditation in pure environment increases intelligence which positively affects memory.

(10) Memory also increases when one is confident about his memory.