Patriarchy

 PATRIARCHY 

Introduction of Patriarchy

"Patriarchy is a social system in which males hold primary power in the domain of the family, father or father fingers hold authority over women and children." 

What is patriarchy

"Patriarchy " (derived from  patriarch in  Greek) 

Is a term for societies in which male is the favoured gender, and in which men hold power, dominion and privilege. Male power in a patriarchy can be found at family community and governmental level.  Patriarchy defines men as the rulers, men's and women's roles are strictly defined and, in a sense, inforced. Women must be seen as inferior, vehicle generally less capable, less intelligent, and less worthy. There work is equally considered "lower". They are relegated to hearth and home. Cleaning, caring for the family and serving the husband. Critically, the same pressure exists for men to conform to particular roles. One classic (though not universal any stretch) is that men must be tough and strong, must not cry, must not back down, must be willing to get into physical altercations to solve problems.

Meaning And Definitions Of Patriarchy

In literal means:‐ " The  Role of The  Father ". Patriarchy is a social system where man why are considered superior and more powerful than women. It is made from two words Patri +Arch = Father's House.

Patriarchy represents as social and cultural system in which all the material resources e.g. land, property etc., are owned and controlled by the senior male who is the head of the family; and why virtue of that he enjoys control over all productive and even reproductive behaviour of women in the family.

Patriarchy is reflected in societies in multiple ways. 

It gets nourished through The stereotyping that takes place during the process of socialization, where why right from the birth, a child is trained to acquire a gendered behaviour, vocabulary and body language, that go with the cultural values and norms in a particular society.

Definitions :– 

Patriarchy is commonly described as "a system of social structures and practices, in which man govern, oppress and exploit women." Patriarchal violence is then any kind of violence that creates or maintain men's power and dominance, or avengers the loss of their power. Male dominance seems to be upheld primarily  through violence means.  These means as on a wide scale from verbal,  psychological, economic and physical is violence to sexual violence or murder.  Another possible definition is that violence is...... a collective term for the violence that is found throughout the word and that is rooted word is in patriachal power structured at defends."

According to  Sylvia Wabbley-  " Patriarchy is such a social practice in which men have the authority over women and they exploid and oppress them".

According to Maggie - "Patriarchy is a male-based system which keys women under social political and economic institutions"

According to Gerda Lerner-  "Patriarchy is the expression and institutionalization of men's dominance over women and children, and is an extension of social dominance of men over women generally. It entails that men enjoy control over all power institutions and women are deprived of such power stations."

According to  Uma Chakraborty  - "In the patriachal system, men have control over various aspects of women's life."

Patriarchy takes different forms in different communities, classes and castes, and its form is dynamic. As it is related to history and undergoes a change continuously, so it is understood that if men and women continue to agitate for an equal society, it may come to an end.

1. In a patriarchal system, men make all decisions both in the family as well as in the society.

2. Men are considered with identification that includes qualities of control, forcefulness, strength, strong work ethic, rationality, and competitiveness.

3. Men will be the heroes in all situations.

4. Toys for female children may in emphasized different values and roles within society, such as mother or housekeeper rather than educated professional.

5. From values, rituals and traditions to laws and formal institutions like governments, power within a society will be focused on a uplifting men.

6. Women's will not be allowed to suggest changes to any social order. 

7. Men hold all positions of power and authority.

8. The centre of activity and progression to move the society forward will be on men in a patriarchal system. 

9. Men will have the control at all time on finance and education.

10. History books may focus on male figures than female figures.

11. Women will have submissive roles sometimes.

12. Women will not be allowed to raise up to leadership levels or make decisions.

13. Women are also not allowed to demonstrate independence.

14. Men are considered superior.

15. Man will be the focus and developer of all events and inventions.

16. Man will be the center of social engagement, fun and entertainment.

17. Women in a patriarchal society are told from birth that they are inferior or controllable through infinite social and cultural cues.

18. Oppression of women will be visible.

Different Aspects of Patriarchy

Different aspects of patriarchy can be explained under the following heading :

• Concept of Private Property and Control Over Women's Reproduction

Our society was tribal or primitive society in the beginning in which women were generally given rights and the dynasty often ran in the name of the mother. However, as the society turned agricultural, the concept of private property became prominent. Now, men started to have increasing greed over power; he desired to have ownership over his offspring, and desired that his offspring should be  heir to his property. Man himself was a productive power, therefore, he claimed equal right over his children and further generations. He established that man procreates while women nurtures. Offspring is needed as the caretaker of property.

The concept of private property degraded the woman to her lowest social status. Thus, of all the aspects under man's control in a patriarchal system, the most important  is his reproductive capability.

• Control Over Labour Force

 Under the patriarchal system, man possesses control over woman's sexuality, he also controls her labour force. Under it, he ensures that woman will work at home while man will work outside. In the house, her roll will pertain to nurturing, and if she will work outside the house, she will need man's approval. Control over labour force helps man to have control over financial resources, as well as woman's sexuality and freedom, as woman's freedom to go out is limited, and for it, customs and traditions are referred to, why which they are limited to within the four walls of the house. Thus, her access to financial resources is limited and she happens to be fully dependent on man for all her needs.

• Paternalism

How man controls and dominates woman can be understood by the concept of paternalism. It is in fact a sub-part of patriarchy in which father enjoys complete control over other members of the family, and in written he provides economic aid as well as protection to his family members. There are two groups in paternalism: dominant and subordinate. In it, dominance is mitigated through responsibility and write over the others thus, dominance and subordination are not generally seen, as it is transformed into relations of fatherly protection and return for labour. Woman's subordination seems quite natural and we fail to notice any kind of subordination and subjugation, and with this, paternalism is established as a reality as well as a doctrine. When this doctrine is formed, women to cooperate in it.

• Women's Cooperation in Maintaining Patriarchal System

As an ideology, patriarchy is assisted by women in a way. They consent in maintaining it in some way, and this consent is obtained in several ways. First, women are dependent on men financially, so they are as good as compelled to assent to men. Besides, the women who follow the patriarchal system are respected and given other facilities; and those who do not cooperate or assent to this system and its rules, they are called deviant; and it is possible that they may be deprived of financial facilities. In this way, they may occur our division among women; one group favours the patriarchy and enjoy's the special facilities, while the other not. The group that disagrees with patriarchy is termed as corrupt or deviant. Besides, the women who oppose patriarchal customs or ideologies, they are scared for the use of force against them.

• Caste System and Patriarchy

In the patriarchal structure, casts and gender are significantly linked. In the beginning, the caste system was a particular part of the Hindu society, but now it has found strong hold in Christian and Islamic societies too. Women play a significant role in maintaining the caste system; here the casts are compartmentalized as patriarchal rules insure the marital alliances are held within the cast, and they should not be violated in any case. This rule is strictly followed in specifically the high casts, and is said to be in consonance with the scriptures.

• Benevolent  Paternalism 

Benevolent paternalism place a vital role in seeking women's cooperation in maintaining patriarchy and cast hierarchy, under it, the obedient women are given special rights and facilities; they are given the level of security and respect to the extent that they are even worshipped. According to different mythologies, women are so socialized that they start to believe in their purity and dutifulness for their empowerment. Sometimes, pure women think that they are in receipt of some divine power, and through this great and spiritual power, they can make even some amazing feat.

Thus, we see that paternalism, the concept of modernisation of women is mitigated fully by which women are made to help in maintaining patriarchy.

Causes 

• Religious: Male Dominance is "God given."

• Biological determinist : "man is the hunter and dominates."

• Marxist theorist Friedrich engels: "women become men's property."

• Anthropologist Claude Levi-Strauss: "Civilizations manage social relations through the "traffic in women" or the exchange of women."

• 19th century theorist, Bachofen Hypothesized: Matriarchal society preceded patriarchal society in historical time.

Merits of Patriarchy 

• The leader of the family is already decided, so there is no dispute and question who rules.

• In this system, no more burden of leadership or responsibility given to women, so that they can focus on their primary responsibilities of nurturing children.

• Many women feel valued for their unique contribution in patriarchal system.

• It gives a structure to the society and a place and role for everyone.

• A male is only had who gives direction to the family members and encourage them to serve others.

Demerits of Patriarchy

• In Patriarchy system, women are completely neglected and their path of development is blocked.

• Women are not provided equal status of men.

• This system completely disregard the role of women.

• Women becomes victims of exploitation and harassment.

• Women's are not involved in the decision making.

Conclusion :

At present, the structure of patriarchy and paternalist concepts are being contested hotly by the democratic and equal policies of the Constitution of India. Women's subordination and their exploitation in and outside home are being challenged by different movements being run in different parts of the country. Now the women or feminist movements have become quite dynamic. It is true these movements and feminist studies that the subordination of women, called patriarchy has been explained correctly.

Gender Bias and Discrimination

            Gender Bias/ Gender           Discrimination 

Girls belong to the homo sapiens, so they are equal to boys.  Right from birth, they possess all those rides which they ought to possess as humans. They are born with Fundamental Rights like life, food, education, health and employment opportunities. However, they face prejudice even prior to their birth and their whole life. Most of the time, they are not given their rights or they are deprived of them. In the whole world, girls are subjected to violence, boycott and exploitation only as they are females. This type of discrimination takes place in each corner of the world, whether it is the remote under-developed country or a prosperous industrial country. 

This discrimination takes place at all levels and in all groups of the society: family, community, government and society. Sometimes, this discrimination begins right from the time a girl is conceived. Female foetus is killed because boys are given more importance in the society, and boys are given more prominence owing to religious and traditional causes in developing and development countries, and it is also felt that a boy will support them in old age and will perform the final rites. Besides, birth of a son is also helpful in raising the social status. 

Gender Bias/ Gender Discrimination happens when people act on their prejudices or stereotypes. If you do something to put other people down, if you stop them from taking part in certain activities and taking up jobs, or stop them from living in certain neighbourhoods, prevent them from taking water from the same well or hand pump, or not alloww them to drink tea in the same cups or glasses as others, you are discriminating against them. 

Main Features of Gender Bias/ Gender Discrimination 

> Discrimination is also known as Gender Bias.

> Gender Bias is a preference towards one gender over other.

> Gender Bias when man and woman are treated differently in a way that is unfair.

> Due to Gender Bias girls are kept less in the society, in education and in nutrition, than the boys.

> Gender Bias occurs because of the personal values,  perception and outdated traditional views about men and women. 

> At present Gender Biasness exist almost all sphere of human being, at workplace, in the school, health etc.

> Gender Bias is also known as Gender Discrimination, one sideedness, partiality, unequal treatment, unfair treatment, unfairness etc.

> Gender Discrimination includes the belief that one gender to another. (especially men are superior to women).

> It is important to note that Gender Bias exist in both directions.

Basis of Gender Baisness / Gender Discrimination

Some important basis of Gender Biasness :

Racial Discrimination – Racial ( race) is when a person is treated less favorably than another person in a similar situation because of their race,  colour, decent, national or ethnic origin or immigrant status.

Direct  Discrimination – Direct Discrimination is when you are treated differently and worse than someone else for certain reasons. Direct discrimination can be because of : age, skin, colour...

Indirect  Discrimination – Indirect Discrimination is when there is a practice, policy or rule which applies to everyone in the same way, but it has a wrose effect on some people than others. The Equality Act says it puts you at a particular disadvantage.

Gender  Discrimination – Discrimination refers to inequality gender discrimination therefore refers to inequality between people of opposite gender a most famous example of gender discrimination is the Desire of having a male child in the family rather than having a female child apart from this one serious area of discrimination is the gender discrimination at work places.

Gender  Discrimination  at workplace – There is an alarm rise in the rates of increasing gender discrimination at work basis now a days every now and then we come across reports related to gender discrimination at workplace research have to rectified this.

Discrimination  on Appearance – Happy arrange is how someone or something looks like topics related to appearance have been under considerations in centuries appearance has been given immense importance and taken care of why not only females but also knees the aim of out city was to find out how sensitive college students are towards rejection due to the way they looked physical we can also include the physical discrimination it is discriminate against anyone in the workplace because of their physical appearance for example height weight body shape this figure meant skin condition is car or worth mark.

Discrimination  Based on  Caste – Social and economic divides is still exist across India cast is the term used to describe the complex system of social divisions that prevaids life in India caste is an ancient hereditary system that developed allowance side and became interwind with Hinduism.

 Causes of Gender Discrimination 

The main  causes of Gender Discrimination :—

1. Illiteracy – due to Illiteracy people do not understand the important of education for girls. Uneducated people follow the myths and superstitions in the society as they prefer boys more in comparison to girls. All the goods and facilities are given to boys first. 

2. Lack of Awareness – Due to lack of education, there is the lack of awareness in rural area and it is believed that the area of women is bounded around home and care of children. So there is no need to provide education to them. It is believed that after marriage the girls go to her husband's home for which there is no advantage of spending on her studies. 

3. Social  Mischief – In the age of information and technology there is a wide variety of mischief and superstition in Indian Society which are as follows:-

4. Child Marriage – The girl child gets married in the small age with whom their right to education is also discussed. 

5. Dowry – The Dowry system in India contributes to gender inequality by Influencing the perception that girls are as a burden families. 

6. Embryo  Killing –  When one  knows that the baby in the womb is girl,  then they kill the embry is girl then they kill the embryo before delivery illegally because they need the baby a boy not a girl. 

7. Narrow Ideology – Narrow deology is also one of the reasons for the gender bias. People believe that the boys will support the old age of the parents. The teaching of boys will increase the income 0f house where is the teaching girls, are waste of time and money. If the boy is well educated he earn for us while the girl is well educated she earned others home.

8. Psychological  Factors – A mentality is set down into women's mind that man are supported superior. Man are the most important person the family and womens are inferior to man and dependent on man for their needs. 

9. Assumptions and Traditions – women are considered as less than mail sense are preferred more in more in family and considered as the Deepak many times girls are killed before birth the preference for sons.

10. Patriarchal Society – The other gender Bias is patriarchal society under which the father or oldest male is the leader of family and autocratic role by the male had of the family.

11. Defective Educational System – Indian education system is defective due to which education does not come with the practical life of the a person.

Steps to prevent Gender Bias and Discrimination 

1. Talk to Women and Girls – A fundamental reason we have not yet achieved gender equality in every realm is that women and girls voices are too often excluded from global and national decision–making. When programmes and policies are designed without women's needs central to their foundation, we're setting ourselves up to fail. So we should talk to women & girl.

2. Stop Child Marriage and Sexual Harassment – In Bangladesh and elsewhere, child marriage is a major impediment to girls education. In Bangladesh more than 50% of girls are married before the age of 18, and about 30% of girls 15 to 19 already have one child. If we want girls to be able to complete education we have to end child marriage.

3. Make Education Gender Sensitive – There has been much progress in increasing access to education,  but progress has been slow in improving the gender sensitivity of the education system, including ensuring textbooks promote positive stereotypes. This is critically important for girls to come out of schools as citizens who can shape a more equal society.

4. Raise Aspirations of Girls and Their Parents – One of the key strategies must be to change how girls, families and society imagine what girls can be and can do. We need to give girls images and role models that expand their dreams. We also need parents to see that there really are opportunities for their daughters, that there only security is not just to be good wives and mothers.

5. Empower Mothers – We have learned that through empowering women on the community level you will also enhance girls education. When mothers are educated and empowered to make choices in their lives,  they enable their daughters to go to school.

6. Give Proper vVlue to 'Women's Work' – We need a concerted campaign for equal pay for equal work worldwide.

7. Get Women into Power – A proven way to overcome many systemic barriers to a woman's success has been increased participation by women in local, regional and national legislation as empowered change agents.

8. Encourage Women into Non-Traditional Vocations – Supporting women in non–traditional jobs is crucial in not only making long–lasting change in their lives but also help break social taboos. 

9. Stop The Violence  – Gender inequality allows for violence against women to continue unabated. The UN has found that globally, one in three women will experience violence in her lifetime, with most violence against women perpetrated by a current or former intimate partner. So we should stop it.

10. Involvement in Politics – There are many social and political reforms across the globe promoting women's rights that are in need of support. Find some and pick one to become involved in, and then petition, petition, petition until you see change. 

Conclusion :

Several forms of action have been taken to combat institutionalized sexism. People are beginning to speak up or "talk back" in a constructive way to expose gender inequality in politics, as well as gender inequality and under-representation in other institutions. Researchers who have delved into the topic of institutionalized sexism is politics have introduced the term "undoing gender." This term focuses on education and an overarching understanding of gender by encouraging "social interactions that reduce gender difference. Some feminists argue that "undoing gender" is problematic because it is context-dependent and may actually reinforce gender. For this reason, researchers suggest "doing gender differently" by dismantling gender norms and expectations in politics, but this can also depend on culture and level of government. We should work with government to protect this.

 Gender Stereotype 

By gender stereotyping is meant that a gender is linked with certain behaviours, and it is considered that certain traits or attributes are adequate for men and others for women. Gender stereotyping occurs when a gender is linked with certain attributes, thoughts and roles. Gender stereotypes are one-sided, they are exaggerated images of men or wo, and they are constantly firmed up by different social institutions like family, school and media.

Definitions of Stereotype 

1. As stereotype is a label which involves a process of categorization and evaluation.

2. Although it may refer to situations or places, it is most used in conjunction with representations of social groups.

3. In simplest terms, an easily grasped characteristic (usually negative) is presumed to belong to the whole group.

According to sociologists, "Gender stereotyping is a process under which children are moulded into sex roles, and due to which the adults and children are deprived of certain aspects of their personality development."

                    Common Gender Stereotypes

There are several gender stereotypes to define each gender. Following are the common traits or stereotypes linked with women :

• submissive                                                            • emotional          

• quiet                                                                       • neat and clean

• clumsy                                                                    • artistic

• housewife                                                              • child-rearing

• nurturing                                                               • rational

• unrealistic

On the country, the gender stereotypes linked with men are concerned with showing them as macho and masculine, as follows :

• aggressive                                                             • loud

• unemotional                                                         • messy

• athletic                                                                   • mathematics and                                                                                                science-oriented

• high positioned                                                    • money-maker

• rational                                                                  • unemotional and                                                                                                 level-headed

• logical

              Masculine Traits                            Feminine Traits                       

      active                                                         considerate 

   aggressive                                                  emotional

competitive                                                 gentle

               independent                                          excitable in major crisis

       rough                                                           tasteful   

               self-confident                                       understanding of others 

        dominating                                                       submissive

  Gender Stereotype Visual Map (Source : Michelle Bingert)

Stereotype gender roles are learnt from childhood. Guardians transmit specific behaviours and roles to them when they tell boys not to cry like girls, and tell girls to behave like women. In such a situation, they are transmitting to children the desirable behaviours of them. It is from these transmissions that children name certain behaviours as feminine and masculine. In the school years, children accept art and music as girlish or feminine and mathematics, athletics and mechanical skills as boyish or masculine. Girls too accept boys smarter than themselves, and think that boys should attain accomplishments. In most societies, this is considered proper even today. It is true of less developed and developing countries of the world if girls do not acquire higher education, or do not try to be self-dependent financially, or not work, as they have to ultimately marry and look after the family and husband.

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 Gender Roles   

Introduction

Gender roles are learnt behaviour. These roles keep changing related to different cultures in their social, economic and political domains. The values and norms of a culture are different from those of the others. There can be some definite form of universality in gender roles, yet to a great extent, they are determined culturally. 

It is hard to change gender roles, yet as they are formulated socially, so they are not static or unchangeable; it is possible to change them.

Concept of Gender Roles

Gender roles are such a group of cultural aspirations which mention of those methods according to which the member of a sex should behave himself. Under it are included the behaviour considered appropriate for man or woman, there attitudes, activities and the like. 

There are two meanings of gender role: First, gender role of people, in a way in which they express their gender identity which is thus determined; and second, the society determines gender role of people; it determines how a man and a woman should act himself or herself, and this goes on to assume the form of gender role. There are several complex forms of sex gender identity, and in daily social life, it is expressed in several ways, though the society prescribes different social roles of men and women according to their distinct groups.

Formulation of Gender Role Identity and Self-Concept in Different Cultures

                                                    Gender Socialization

Gender roles are learnt from the family, guardians, elder siblings and other role models. These role models are the ones who processes the same sex and behave themselves according to their sex. Learning continues to take place under diverse situations. Whenever a girl is given a doll and a boy, a gun, it is manifestation of gender identity. From the viewpoint of biological sex and social gender development, these can we seen as different facts. Physiologically when a child is two to three years of age, he starts to distinguish between boy and girl, and by the time he/she attends the age of five years, children dev clear stereotypes according to their sex. These stereotypes can pertain to their behaviour, attributes and experiences.

It has been often seen that girls and women possess a low self-concept about themselves. They do not consider themselves necessary, important and valuable. The way children are brought up plays a very important role in formulation of self-concept. In our culture, children are treated according to their respective sexes. Girls are attached less important and they are taken as a responsibility from which they have to get rid of. Boys are given special significance. Even a girl being brought up in a very caring home can often hear the guests saying: "She is a lovely girl indeed. How if she were born as a boy!" Small girls see how the boys are waited to be born (thinking that the next issue will be a boy ). And when he is born, people jump into rejoice. The people who have only girls are pitied. The discrimination between boys and girls can be felt and seen under several situations :

1. At Birth : When a boy is born, there is an atmosphere of joy and celebration in the family; and when a girl is born, the atmosphere turns sorrowful. Even the midwife (nurse) turn grievous as she would not get a tip for congratulation. According to the customs, the midwife plays a copper plate with a spoon when a boy is born, and she flings away an earthen pot when a girl is born. It simply means that the boy is a valuable like metal while the girl is nothing more than ash. Small girls observe all this, and they come to know that her brother is more important, boys are gems and girls, only stone.

2. Infancy : The mother breastfeeds boys more than girls. Even the mother is discriminated in terms of food and rest after she has born a girl. This disappointment is manifested in the behaviour of the family. Boys are affectionately brought up. According to a study, out of total of about 400 lullabies, only three have been meant for girls. A boy is the 'Raja beta' or the prince-boy while a girl, a curse.

3. Toddlers and Preschoolers : The children of two to three years of age come to know whether they are boy or girl. They are named according to their sex. They are given different types of clothes, toys and even food. Girls are given dolls and utensils to play with, while boys are given guns and aeroplanes.

4. 6-10 Years Old : In the middle class families, not much difference is found between boys and girls when it comes to height and weight, yet generally most girls are found to be underfed and underweight. The sequence in which food is served at home is quite evident: father, then son and then mother and daughters. Even in prosperous homes, the best food is served to men. (Good pieces of meat and fish are given to men and boys.) Girls just look at them greedily and assimilate the inferior importance being given to them. Often, old men and women can be seen emphasizing that it is better to feed girls less: high protein ans good food leads to mature girls sooner than later, and they start the puberty age.

5. Puberty : The girl's puberty is looked at like a calamity and it is considered that they need to be guarded until they are married. In South India, there are varied and extensive customs at puberty, and sometimes, there can be several causes of her shaming who have to wear half saree or long skirt, and boys mock at them. Often, girls are kept away from school during their menstruation period, or they drop out themselves. As they take admission late, there education is interrupted when they are just 8 or 9 years of age; and they fail to complete primary education even.

6. Rituals, Festivals and Folksongs : Girls grow up seeing boys at the centre of all domestic festivals and customs. Small girls observe fasts wishing for a good husband, while women observe fasts for long lives of their husbands. Fasts are also observed for birth of sons. There are several festivals which are boy-centered, as Rakshabandhan and Bhaiya Dooj. On these occasions, sisters daub on their forehead of their brothers and tie a sacred coloured thread round their wrists and pray for the long lives, and in return, they get an assurance for care and security. The brother may be howsoever small, he thinks it his birthright to restrain his elder sisters. Girls have to depend on boys under all circumstances, whether small or big; their place lies just here.

Some Examples of Gender Roles Difference--

・ In Hindu families, small girls in pre-puberty stage are worshipped and adorned taking them as incarnation of Goddess Durga on the occasion of Navratras, but as soon as their stage of puberty begins, they are considered defiled and kept away from the ritual. 

• There are several folksongs and customs in which girls are repeatedly told that their house of birth is only transient, and their real home is that of her husbands. They are constantly prepared and trained that they have to be cooperative and obedient to their husbands, they are forbidden to raise their voice or answer rudely; they are asked to keep their glance low. 

• Girls are not allowed to play outside after sunset. On the contrary, boys are permitted to play in open places, even in roads and streets. 

• The wedding songs are all aimed at  preparing a girl for wearing with all types of maltreatment and physical violence, and you can find a glimpse of all this quite often.

• Then there is an eternal impediment: that is to search a suitable life partner and anxiety for dowry. Girls parents are perennially anxious, which cultivates a sense of inferiority and hesitation in girls, and they keep looking at themselves helplessly and desperately. Some of them, in order to save their parents from the trauma, end their lives. 

• Boys are not only given good food and better medical facilities, they are but also encouraged to be aggressive. If they come victorious in street fighting, they are given positive reinforcement. And in fact, if boys come home beaten and crying, they are mocked at and they are told,  "Are you a girl that you are crying you are disgrace bear the bangles and sit at home like girls all this cultivates are restlessness in voice where they are expected to image brave aggressive fighter and victorious

Boys are trained for outside or market chores, while girls are trained for domestic chores; girls are asked to care of younger siblings, the sick, domestic cattle, fill water and gather fuel etc. In fact, they are prepared for such domestic roles of the future as they are imagined to play those roles in the future. Thus, boys become outgoing, extrovert and enterprising, while girls are restrained within the four walls of the house. Boys are pressurized to be achievers, productive and helpful to parents; and owing to this pressure, they are sent out to the unknown world at a comparatively delicate stage, which often leads to their being victims of troubles, crime and addiction etc.

Some Additional Instances and Episodic Narrations

The women who bear boys are given good food, rest and clothes etc., while those who bear girls are neglected and disrespected; who would like to have a fate like this? Therefore, the best suitable modern method is not to bear girls at all; so, females are destroyed at the foetus or infant stage or they are poisoned. Women hate themselves being women, as they are often victimized of violence and comments. In such a case, they would not like to bear a child who would be victimized alike and be a tool for additional spending of the family. There are several sayings in India which say that spending on girls is like watering the neighbour's plants.

Old people bless women to bear a son. In a Punjabi saying, women are blessed to be Satputri, or the one who bears seven sons. As soon as the newly-wed bride steps into the house, a boy is placed in her lap and worshipped with til (linseed, a type of oil seed), and women sing that she should bear as many sons as there are the seeds. In the morning, when the bride touches her mother-in-law's feet, they are blessed that her Suhag or husband should live long as her fate is linked with him. Small girls often observe that women pray for the birth of sons, for having husbands like Shiva and fast for long age of their husbands and sons. No such fasting is done for girls or their long age. If a boy is born after a girl, she is considered auspicious and fortunate.

Girls experience open discrimination in food, game and medical facilities even. Boys and men are given better food, while girls are given less so that they do not grow like 'a pole'. Game is considered a natural need for boys while girls are kept within the four walls of the house right since puberty, and are sent out only in the company of some men (whether grown up or younger brother).  They are made to feel weakness every moment, and mothers can we seen lamenting often, "When shall we get rid of this calamity? She is sure to bring in fancy." Even younger brothers mock at her why she stood at the doorway. She is forbidden from jumping, running and playing life physical activities. "Do this and don't do that," are the common injections that are passed to her always. What they should eat, what they should wear, which school they should go, which game they should play, which festival they have to attend, with whom they have to be married, etc, all decisions pertaining to them are taken by others.

Conclusion :

Often it is seen that the relation between gender identity and gender roles is not clear. It is possibly due to the fact that the meanings of sex and gender have been oversimplified. It is thought that a person will be either a man or a woman fully, that is, a man will carry out the gender role of a man, and a woman will play a feminine role. In the modern times, we can see variations in it such as in cross-dressing in which women wear manly dresses, and the other way round is also true.

Several anthropologist studies revealed that gender roles are in fact a form of labour division. There is no uniformity in different social and cultural definitions what is masculine or what is feminine social behaviour and role. This distinction can be found in different societies and communities. In the same society too, the gender roles undergo a change with time. It is mainly related to social definition and social meaning attached to them. The gender role defined by our society has a far-reaching and intense impact on the lives of men and women. They provide a structure for formulation of gender identity.

Meaning of Sexuality

 Sexuality refers to sexual behaviour, and the thoughts and feelings the person has in relation to that behaviour. Every society controls the sexuality of its members, by embedding it in the institutions of family, religion and law. The core social arrangement within the institution of the family is the martial relationship. The right to engage in sexual activity is a defining characteristic of marriage in all cultures; at the same time, marriage limits sexuality, separating the couple from all other sexually active adults in the society (Potts and Short 1999).

     

 

Contemporary analyses of sexuality emphasize that sexuality is not merely a biological phenomenon whose character is the same across time and space; it is also a cultural construct. Who engages in sexual behaviour with whom and under what circumstances reflect cultural norms and values; even the behaviours in which partners engage reflect social and cultural influence. The meaning of sexuality in contemporary society is situated in a dense network of interrelated categories, including the body, maleness and femaleness, reproduction, sensuality, health, selfhood and so on"

Certain constructions are found in most or all societies. "Even in the face of great international diversity,.... rules for sexual behaviour often are found to be rigidly defined, strictly inforced, and ultimately used to upload heteronormative family relations." In other words, sexuality is hetero, marital, and oriented towards reproduction.

 Despite this normative framework, there is variation. Sexuality varies in its specifics by culture, by race/ethnicity, and by subgroups (e.g., religions ) within society. Within each group, there is a perspective on sexuality. Michael Foucault refers to a way of thinking and talking about sex as a discourse. The discourse gives meaning to sexual behaviour and relationships, and is the basis of norms that are policed by group members. The meaning of sexuality of particular persons reflects the discourses with which they have come in contact.

Human Sexuality and Culture

 "Human sexuality" refers to people's sexual interest in and; attraction to others; it is the capacity to have erotic or sexual feelings and experiences. Sexuality differs from biological sex, in that "sexuality" refers to the capacity for sexual feelings and attraction, while "biological sex" refers to how one's anatomy, physiology, hormones, and genetics are classified (typically as male female or intersex). Sexuality is also separate from gender identity, which is a person's sense of their own gender, or sociocultural classification (i.e., man and woman or another gender) based on biological sex (i.e., male or female). It is also distinct from-although it shapes-sexual orientation, or one's emotional and sexual attraction to a particular sex or gender.

 Sexuality may be experienced and expressed in a variety of ways, including thoughts, fantasies, desires, attitude, beliefs, values, behaviours, practices, roles and relationships. These manifest themselves not only in biological, physical, and emotional ways, but also in sexuality. Some researches believe that sexual behaviour is determined by genetics; however, others assert that it is a largely molded by the environment. Human sexuality impacts, and is impacted by, cultural, political, legal, and philosophical aspect of life, and can interact with issues of morality, ethics, theology ,spirituality, or religion.

 Sexuality Across Culture

 Throughout time and place, the vast majority of human beings have participated in sexual relationships. Each society, however, interpret sexuality and sexual activity in different ways. Human sexuality can be understood as part of the social life of humans, governed by implied rules of behaviours and the status quo. The sociocultural context of society-- which includes all social and cultural factors, from politics and religion to the mass media-- not only creates social norms but also places major importance on conformity to these norms. Norms dictate what is considered to be acceptable behaviour what is considered normal or acceptable in terms of sexual behaviour is based on the norms, mores, and values of the particular society.

 Different cultures vary in regard to norms, including how they understand and perceive sexuality, how they influence the artistic expression of sexual beauty, how they understand the relationship between Gender and sexuality, and how they interpret and judge particular sexual behaviours (such as premarital sex, the age of sexual consent, homosexuality, masturbation, etc). Societies that value monogamy, for example, are likely to oppose extramarital sex. Individuals are socialized to these mores and values-- starting at a very young age-- by their family, education system, peers, media and religion. 

Society's views on sexuality are influenced by everything from religon to philosophy, and they have changed throughout history and are continuously evolving. Historically, religion has been the greatest influence on sexual behaviour in the United States, however, in more recent years, peers and media have emerged as two of the strongest influences, particularly among American teens.

Gender Identity

Gender Identity

• Gender identity is the personal sense of one's own gender.
• Gender identity can correlate with sex at birth or can differ from it.
• Gender refers to how a particular culture differentiate masculine and feminine social roles. 
• Males and females, a gender Binary System and which include Expectations of masculinity and femininity.

During the common process of gender identity in the family, small children are often seen acting in roles which are in accordance with their sex roles, which help them to gradually distinguish between masculinity and femininity. At play, generally girls dress up in frocks or girls dresses, play the roles of mother; while boys get ready in suit and neckties ready to go to office just like their fathers. Sometimes, small boys can be seen doing those tasks which are considered worthy for feminism, as dressing like girls, using make-up articles and play role in bringing up children. In the same way, some girls play the role of 'Daddy' during their play.

Some girls tend to act like man disproportionately and then the community terms such girls as 'Tomboys'. In these different and sex- cross roles, children are assisted in their socialization. Gender identity is an individual identity which an individual feels as man or woman.  This information begins right from childhood and blooms right until adolescence. It is such an identity which cultivates during socialization of an individual and most aspects of manliness or womanliness are taught by the community and learnt by individuals. To a great extent, gender identity has to create self- identity and individuality. Under gender identity is included the state of being man or woman, or how an individual's sex and situations are governed or incorporated by the community.

Gender identity is the assumption of a person being man or woman. It is the self-concept of a man or woman. Gender identity is the basic and far-reaching identity which an individual learns. A mere 15- months old child is starts to know whether he/ she is a boy or girl.

Gender identity is generally that by which an individual accepts himself /herself as a man or woman; but this can also be seen in this way that gender identity is that by which other people come to know about you on the basis of your symbols or gender roles (as dress, hair style). It can also be called a set of symbols by which the gender identity of an individual is determined.

Therefore, the people who think themselves as girls or women feel feminine gender, and they will do such things which will tell others that they are girls or women. On the other hand, and individual who knows himself as masculine gender will do such things which will help him chalk out as a boy or man. Most communities ensure that individuals behave themselves as per the norms set for that Gender, and it is related with their gender identity. The process of gender identity is complex which is initiated at conception, and grows more complicated through worth and after-birth experiences. We can distinguish it on certain attributes, but each community classifies as each of its individual into man or woman on the basis of language and other customs.

Thus, gender identity is an exemption which threatens to an individual being a boy or girl general. Gender identity is invisible and cannot be established on the basis of extrinsic appearance. Generally, sex and gender identity are coincidental, because men behave themselves as masculinity is defined in the community,  and so is the case with women who behave as femininity is defined.

Factors Influencing Gender Identity

(i). BIOLOGICAL FACTORS:

• Several prenatal,  biological factors,  including genes and hormones,  may affect to gender identity.
• The biochemical theory of gender identity suggests that people acquire gender identities through such factors rather than socialization. 
• Hormonal influences are also Complex sex determining hormones are produced at an early stage of metal development.

(ii). SOCIAL AND ENVIRONMENTAL FACTORS:

Gender identity also had a strong relation with social and environmental factors: search factors would mostly include the attitude of the parents raising the child and their culture.

• Children learn from family and culture.

• The family is the most important social group in society. It's also the most important influences in a child's life. The family plays an essential role in child's education, physical and emotional needs, in protection and material support, in nurture, love and give emotional support.

Diverse Learning Theories and Gender Identity Formulation

Learning occupies an important place in formulating gender identity. There are several theories which tell how children attend their gender identity according to their biological sex.

(i). Social Learning Theory:- Children learn to be man or woman by reinforcement and modelling. Sex- related messages being to pour in soon after the Infant leaves hospital after birth. As a child grows, boy and girl is looked at differently as a boy or girl, and their stereotyped behaviors are also rewarded too.

(ii). Social Cognitive Theory:- According to this theory, children are active thinkers and they form schema of the gender in a like manner as they form schema of other incidents. Information and experiences are stores in the schema, which helps them take decision and understand the world around them.

(iii). Cultural Transmission Theory:- According to this theory the process of gender identification commence at infancy. The important people in the life of a child give shape to his behaviour, like guardians, siblings and teachers. For, this they reward a child for a behaviour in in consonance with the gender, and discourage anti- gender behaviour. Children too are motivated to behave like the people of their Gender and their imitation because they accept them as their role models children have rights in small age to establish their gender identity.

Gender: Introduction, Static Meaning, Definition and Core Concept | Sex

"Gender refers to the attitudes, and behaviours that a given culture and associates with the person's biological sex. Behaviour that is compatible with cultural expectations is referred to as gender normative; behaviours that are viewed as incompatible with these expectations constitutes gender non-conformity.

Introduction to Gender

The concept of gender came into existence during the early 1970's. It was used as an analytical category to draw a line of demarcation between biological sex differences and the way these are used to inform behaviours and complexes which are then assigned as masculine or feminine. The purpose of affirming a sex/gender distinction was to argue about the actual physical or mental effects of biological differences which was exaggerated to maintain a patriarchal system of power as well as to create a consciousness among the women that they were naturally better suited to domestic roles. The conception of gender varies according to different context and time period. A common core sediment of meaning that the gender concept carrier by ingaging with how different cultures work in, through an of gendered realities. Though gender has always been a part of societal realities everywhere, its emergency as a concept and a discursive tool is a recent and modern phenomenon.

Static Meaning

A static meaning of gender concept has aligned itself with the range of Idea cluster from time to time, making it impossible to explain it by tracking its etymological roots alone. By such alignments on the one hand extend originally or grammatically and on the other hand, they make for re- routing of meanings that stretch the very matrix on which the gender concept is based.

The concept of gender is addressed in various specialised disciplines for instance in literary studies, history, anthropology, etc. each of which retrieves and re-figures the concept differently. Centrally speaking the gender has been the issue of sexual difference and its manifestation and their consequences. The debate usually is found amongst man and woman and even women themselves, which implies the combination of biological and socio-historical factors in the definitions.

Definitions and Core Concepts

Gender is defined as a set of characteristics or traits that are associated with a certain biological sex (male/ female). These characteristics are generally referred to as "masculine" or "feminine".

Gender has been defined as: "The commonly shared Expectations and norms with the society about appropriate male and female behaviour,  characteristics and roles. Gender can be considered as social and cultural construct that differentiate females from male and thus defines the ways in which females and males interact with each other. These roles and expectations are learned and they can change over time as well as vary within and between cultures".

Clarification of Definition

* Gender is a culture- specific construct– there are significant differences in which women and men can or cannot do in one culture as compared to another. But what is fairly consistent across cultures is that there is always a distinct difference between women's and men's roles, access to productive resources, and decision-making authority. Typically, men are seen as being responsible for the productive activities outside the home while women.

* Sexuality is distinct from gender yet intimately linked to it. It is the social construction of a biological drive. An individuals Sexuality is defined by whom one has sex with, in what ways, why, under what circumstances and with what outcomes. It is more than sexual behaviour, it is multi dimensional and dynamic concept..."

Gender is used to describe the characteristics of women and men that are socially constructed, while sex refers to those that are biologically determined. People are born female or male, but learn to be girls and boys who grow into women and men. This learnt behaviour and makes a gender identity and determines gender roles.

Gender is also a social construct. As the World health organisation (WHO) explains:

"Gender refers to the socially constructed characteristics of women and men, such as norms rules and relationships of and between groups of women and men. It varies from society to society ".

The United Nations (1995,2000,2001) has defined gender as follows: "The term gender refers to culturally based expectations of the roles and behaviours of the males and females. The term distinguishes of the socially constructed from the biologically determined aspects of being male and female. Unlike the biology of sex, gender roles and behaviours can change historically, sometimes it relatively quickly, even if aspects of these roles originated in the biological differences between the sexes. Because the religious or cultural traditions that define and justify the distinct roles and expected behaviours of males and females are strongly cherished and socially enforced change in gender systems often in contested. In some countries, there are groups, which seeks can impose more stringent divisions between males and females than currently exist, while feminist movements seek to reduce or eradicate these divisions."

Gerda Learner, in her book The Creation of Patriarchy, says: "Gender is a costume, a mask, a strait jacket in which men and women dance their unequal dance."

Alan Wolfe found that in all types of groups, in which people have done wrong to the others, the most profoundly the men have subjugated women. Lerner says that man's subjugation is most primary among all types of slavery, and sexism is the most prominent among all types of 'isms' like casteism, classism etc., and which should be prohibited.

In explaining sex and gender, a factor must be known clearly,  and that is biological determinism.

• Gender refers to those characteristics and roles of women and men that are socially constructed.
• What is gender about?
• Social roles and relations between men and women in the society.
• It affects all parts of our lives (social economic and political).
• It changes over time.
• It is what we expect men and women to do behave.
• It is about how power is used and shared.

Sex

Sex in a very broad way," sex" refers to the biological and physiological differences between male and female sex. The term sex is a physical differentiation between the biological male and the biological female. Thus, when an infant is born, the infant comes to be labelled "boy" or "girl" depending on their sex. The genital difference between male and female is the basis of such characterization. There is a biological difference between the sexes and most people are born as one sex or another. However, it has been argued that having been born into one sex and another, individuals are then socialized according to specific gender expectations and roles. Biological males learn to take on masculine roles. They are socialize to think and act in masculine ways. Biological females learn to take on feminine roles.

We can also say that sex is the permanent and immutable biological characteristics common to individuals in all societies and cultures, while gender defines traits forced throughout the history of social relation. Gender, although is originates in objective biological divergences goes far beyond the physiological and biological specific of the two sexes in terms of the roles each is expected to play. Gender differences are social constructs, inculcate on the basis of a specific society's particular perceptions of the physical differences and the assume to tastes, tendencies, and capabilities of men and women. Gender differences, unlike the immutable characteristics of sex, are universally conceded in historical and comparative social analyses to be variants that are transformed over time and from one culture to the next, as societies change and evolve.

Definition

 "Sex refers to a person's biological status and is typically categorized as male, female, or intersex ( I.e., a typical combinations of features that uses distinguish male from female). There are a number of indicators of biological sex chromosomes, gonadotropin, internal reproductive organs,  and external genitalia. "

Gender vs Sex sex identify as biological differences between men and women. E.g. a woman can give birth and man provides sperm. Sex is universal (every nation, throughout history) gender identifies social relations between men and women Gender is socially constructed but gender roles are dynamic and changed over time.

The Difference Between Sex and Gender

S.No.	Sex	Gender
1.	Biologically determined	Socially constructed
2.	Determined by organs of birth based on gender	Determined by social roles
3.	Anatomy of reproductive system	Personal identification of one'se own gender
4.	Will have secondary sexual characters	Will be based on internal awareness
5.	Denotes physical differences between male and female	Denotes behavioral and cultural practices
6.	Difference in organs of birth	Difference in attitude and behaviour
7.	Concept of sex is same all the world	Results from socialization process
8.	It has expectations in appearance	It has social Expectations physical
9.	Differ from male to female	It relates to both the sex
10.	Can't we change by time	Changes over time
11.	No difference	Gender roles are different at different history
12.	Only two aspects	Has variety of aspects