Stages Of Adolescence and Objectives of the Adolescence Period { Part 2 }

 Stages Of Adolescence and Objectives of the Adolescence Period

E.B. Hurlock lists the entire range of adolescence period as follows:

(1) Pre-adolescence-11to 13 years (girls): 13 to 15 years (boys) 

(2) Early-adolescence-13 to 15 years (girls); 15 to 17 years (boys)

(3) Middle-adolescence-15 to 18 years (girls); 17 to 19 years (boys)

(4) Late-adolescence-18 to 21 years (girls): 19 to 21 years (boys)

It is understood that one does not automatically pass from one of these periods to another on a given birthday. One level of development help the other. In order to pass from childhood to adulthood the child is to pass through the adolescence period which is full of problems. During this period hetro-sexual interests, free from home supervision, make new emotional and social adjustments to reality, began to evolve a philosophy of life, achieve economic and intellectual independence, and learn how to use his/her leisure time profitably, etc., are developed. If he fails in any of these achievements, he fails to gain full maturity. Let us now discuss in detail in terms of change from a childish towards an adult level.

Development during Adolescence

 DEVELOPMENT DURING ADOLESCENCE

Introduction

Psychologists recognize that many options for change remain open throughout life. Understanding human behaviour over the life span is a major focus of developmental psychology. With the coming of adolescence, physiological changes accelerate, sexual maturity arrives, social relationship become more intense and new cognitive capacities emerge. Although psychological maturity does not occur quite so rapidly the teenage years are a time of dramatically speeded up development. When we speak of the adolescent as 'growing up' we mean that the youth has leaving behind the phase of protective childhood and is becoming independent, capable of going out to fend for himself. Let us now discuss the above period in details.

Meaning of Adolescence

The term 'adolescence' is derived from the Latin verb "adolescere" which means to grow to maturity or to grow-up. This period is most critical period of individual development which begins from 12-13 years and ends at 21/22 years. During this period the establishment of the childhood goes away and a revolutionary change starts. Thus this period is known as revolutionary period of human life during which the child develops into a man or woman. It is characterized by the change in physiological, psychological and sociological aspects of individuals. During these years, one is neither a child nor an adult and generally referred as the period of life from puberty to maturity.

The period of adolescence is defined in several ways

These are the following :

1. According to A.T. Jersild "Adolescence is that span of years during which boys and girls move from childhood to adulthood mentally, emotionally. socially and physically".

2. From biological point of view this is a period of rapid growth. The period of adolescence begins when the individual shows the first signs of making the transition to sexual maturity and ends when physical growth almost ceases at about the age of 21. 

3. According to Hadfield "when we speak of adolescent as 'growing up' we mean that the youth is leaving behind the phase of protective childhood and is becoming independent, capable of going out to fend for himself".

4. Mead defined "Adolescence is the period from the beginning of sexual maturity (puberty) to the completion of growth."

5. According to Hall  "Adolescence is that period of human life where an individual is capable of producing of offsprings of same kind."

6. According to sociological interpretation of the word adolescence, "it is a transitional period between childhood and adulthood when a child moves from dependency to independency in his behaviour."

The child takes a new birth in adolescence. It is more or less like a jump from one stage to the other. Thus, with this period various adjectives are attached. These are the following:

(a) Adolescence is a period of "spring of life".

(b) Adolescence is called "attractive age" but "uneven and strange in life".

(c) Adolescence is the period of "Stress and strain" and "storm and strife" (Stanley Hall).

(d) Adolescence a "Phenomenon" which happens once in life time.

(e) Adolescence is a period of "teen age".

(f) Adolescence is a period of "youth".

(g) Adolescence is the period of "transition from childhood to adulthood".

(h) Adolescence is called the "revolutionary period" of human life.

(i) Adolescence is called a "sharp and distinct critical period" in development.

(j) Adolescence is a "period of second birth" (Hall's). 

(k) Adolescence may be called "sensitive" period in development. 

(l) Adolescence begins in "biology and ends in culture"

Needs of the Study of Adolescence Period

Adolescence is the most important period in human development about which poets, writers, historians have made references. It is a period of transition and a turning point in the life of the individual. The following are the needs to study the psychology of adolescence.

1. Understanding developmental characteristics

To study the adolescence period means to understand the growth and development in almost all dimensions of the above period. It helps the parents, teacher and all others who are responsible for proper development of the adolescents and guide him/her to adjust in a better way in the society.

2. Adjustment to responsibilities

The study of adolescence period helps the teachers and parents to know the responsibilities of the adolescents and guide them to live harmoniously without any emotional tension.

3. Maintenance of mental health

The study of adolescence helps the parents and teachers to prevent, cure and improve the deteriorating trends in mental health of adolescents.

4. Planning Curriculum and Education

The study of adolescence period help the teacher, curriculum workers and guidance personnel to plan curricular and co-curricular activities according to the needs, interests and aptitudes, etc., of adolescence.

5. To study the maturity and curiosity

The knowledge of the psychology of adolescence help the teacher and parents to understand the maturity level. behavioural characteristics and their curiosity in relation to the larger interest of the society.

Characteristics of Adolescence Period

Hurlock in her book 'Developmental Psychology' outlines the following characteristics of the adolescence period.

(1) Adolescence is an important period

Adolescence is a complex and often difficult period in development both for adolescents and for their families. Because of rapid physical, physiological and cognitive changes. and by an accelerating succession of urgent societal demands. adolescents face formidable challenges in the essential task of deciding who they are, what they are going to be, and how they are going to get these. Thus this is an important period of the human life.

(2) Adolescence is a transitional period

Adolescence is a period of transition and rapid change. Neither the person is called a child nor an adult because the individual has crossed the childhood and yet to react the stage of adulthood. Thus the status of the individual is vague and diffused and there is a confusion about the roles he/she is going to play. Sometimes his innocent behaviour is either called "childish" or "too big for his age".

(3) Adolescence is a period of change

It is a general characteristics of the adolescence period. During this stage there is a change in physical, psychological and sociological aspects of individuals along with values. attitudes, interests, and behaviours. Thus consistency and inconsistency is found out in the life cycle.

(4) Adolescence is a period of ego centric and problem age

The sudden and rapid changes of physical and psychological aspects during this stage create problem for the adolescents. Adolescent youth are interested to solve their problems independently and try to achieve independence from parents, establish co-operative and workable relationships with peers and prepare for a meaningful vocation. But sometime they do not have the capacity nor the experience to solve their problems, which itself create a problem for them.

(5) Adolescence is a time of search for identity

Each of the periods has its own problems which must be solved if the individuals are to enter the next period without handicap. Adolescence is perhaps no more important a stage of development then any other, but it is the last stage before adulthood, and it therefore, offers to both parents and teachers the last opportunity to educate a child for his adult responsibilities. During this period adolescents begin to search for their identity and try to develop individuality in their own way which sometimes lead to identity crisis in some adolescents.

(6) Adolescence is a period of unrealism

During this period the aspirations, thoughts and achievement, etc., are more idealistic rather than realistic. The young boys and girls think more unrealistic, false and absurd ideas which sometime hurt and disappoint them in life. It is found out that this false idealistic ideas disappears gradually and adolescent see their life, family and friends more realistically.

(7) Adolescence is a period of Hero-Worship and sexual maturity

During this period the boys and girls consider themselves they are the hero and heroine of the life cycle. They think they can do and undo everything during their life span without understanding the reality of the life. The above feelings take place due to the sudden sexual development on the part of the boys and girl

(8) Adolescence is a period of intensely emotion

During this period the youth often resulting in intense excitement and deep depression. Sometimes he/she may exhibit a "know-it-all" attitude. Boys like to be thought big, strong and healthy. Girls desire prettiness. In both the sexes there is interest in and emphasis on physical attractiveness and good grooming.

(9) Adolescence is a period of sexual delinquency

During this period sexual manifestation may cause self consciousness and desire for other ties. It is a period of mutual liking, thus homosexual and hetrosexual feelings create confusion among the adolescents.

(10) Adolescence is a period of high moral values and sacrifice

During this period high moral values is seen. The adolescents youth likes to serve in the fairs, festivals, social gatherings, etc., and sacrifice their own conveniences for social service due to their high moral feelings.

Childhood Stage Development

  Childhood Stage (6 to 11/12 years)

This is the period extending from six to twelve years. At this stage the youngster is still a child, but he is more mature than the Infancy stage. This period is known as intervening stage between infancy and adolescence. This stage is known as stage of varied experience of objects and persons and called pre adolescence period. This is the period beginning with the entry into school and ending in the advent of puberty. It is otherwise the stage of latency period, the period of excellence and pseudo-maturity.

Main Characteristics of Childhood

The following are the characteristics of childhood from the viewpoint of their physical, mental, emotional and social development :

1. Stability in Physical Growth: Though the rate of physical development during childhood is very slow as compared to infancy whatever physical development that takes place during this stage firmness, it has The children develop the capability to fight with diseases. The organs of action and perception develop fully and their capability to work and learn increases.

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2. Development of Mental Abilities: During childhood, children inculcate firmness in the mental faculties already developed in fancy, as sensation, perception, imagination and memory. Besides, they develop the abilities of thinking, reasoning, analysis, synthesis and problem solving. As a result, they express curiosity to know even the indirect or abstract and thus they start to form concepts.

3. Change in Interests: During this stage, the interests of children change rapidly. This change occurs according to the environment around them. They have interest in collective tasks and touring.

4. Extrovert Personality : Children in their infant period, are often introvert and they live in their own imaginary world, In childhood they step into the outside world and are acquainted with realities, they start to take interest in them and we say that their personality has become extrovert.

5. Interest in Real World: Children enter the real world during childhood, now they take interest in understanding the reality of the real world, they make effort to understand the real form of each object, person and activity.

6. Self-Dependence : Children are often dependent on others during infancy, in childhood, they start to do their routine works themselves. They become able to do some other tasks themselves and perform them independently. Their self-dependence develops continuously during this stage.

7. Development of Creativity : Children take much interest in creative works during childhood. Sometimes they do these works by imitations and sometimes do them on the basis of their own imagination and insight, and thus their creativity develops.

8. Control Over Emotions : All instincts have developed by the time children enter childhood and their behaviour is influenced by them. Now they start to distinguish between the good and the bad and are influenced by the praise or censure in the society. They adjust themselves in order to get admiration of the society and avoid its censure. Anything that is bad from social viewpoint, they start to give it up. For this, they have to control their emotions, and they start to do so. They display love where they ought to do so, and express enmity where they ought to do so, etc.

9. Social Development : The instinct of gregariousness is very intense in childhood. They start to become members of different (societies) and adopt their behavioural norms in order to adjust with them. At this time, their behaviour is influenced by the praise and censure of the society. Consequently, they adopt the behavioural norms approved by the society. In this process, they are acquainted with their rights and duties also and proceed towards doing their duties. In true sense the Social development of children takes place during childhood.

10. Moral Development : According to Strang, children of 7-8 years start to distinguish between the good and the evil on the basis of social norms, they distinguish between the just and the unjust, the right and the wrong. It is evident that the children who will follow the right from right-wrong, honesty from honesty-dishonesty, just from just unjust, their moral development would take place. Even otherwise, the children during this stage start to adopt their cultural and religious values and their moral development takes place in true sense.

11. Interest in Learning New Things : The scope of children during infancy is very limited, they enter the outside world during childhood, they watch the real world, newer objects, activities and persons, they come across newer incidents and events and it is natural for them to arouse curiosity towards them. They take interest in knowing them. Not only this, they also display interest in knowing the indirect objects, activities and events. This is the most suitable stage for imparting the knowledge of the reality of life.

Physical Development in Childhood

In the first stage of childhood from 6 to 9 years of age, children grow in both height and weight. It has been seen that the girls grow more during this stage as compared to boys. During this stage, the children accumulate physical powers, so it is called the accumulative childhood.

During 9 to 12 years of age, the previously acquired physical development becomes stronger, permanent dentition erupts in place of primary dentition and bones and muscles start to firm up, so it is called the period of maturing childhood.

(b) Mental development :

(1) By age six, a child is ready for school and his brain has attained 80% of its total development, his vocabulary has increased and is able to form simple concepts. He is capable of both inductive and deductive reasoning. There is increased ability to generalize and to explain things in terms of cause and effect relationship.

(2) The instincts of curiosity, constructiveness and acquisition and the innate tendency of play work wonders at this stage. The child is imaginative and interested in both fanciful and factual literature, like stories having a surprise element, interested in comics, excitement, humour, mystery, suspense, creative and productive work.

(3) Imitation and make-believe are also at the climax during this stage. The span of attention becomes longer. The children between nine and twelve years are willing learners (if motivation is stronger or if a reward is announced and enjoy learning.

(4) Interests start widening and go beyond his immediate surroundings, capable of forming concepts (on concrete objects) but difficult in abstract concepts like justice, kindness or honesty. The child is able to see the similarities and differences between objects but children are found to be quite immature and their concepts are native and shallow.

(5) The critical attitude is not yet developed at the age of nine but at about twelve years, child's self-concept starts growing and gradually he comes critical of all his elders. He begins to admire things and peoples around him. He begins to imitate the manners and behaviour of those people whom he admires.

(c) Language Development :

Language is a tool of both thinking and communication. It helps for social communication and for better understanding among individuals and groups. During childhood stage there is rapid increase in vocabulary and words are combined into coherent phases and sentences, and simple thoughts are communicated with ease.

The child shows a keen desire to learn meanings of new words and he tries to use them in his conversation, though often quite awkwardly. Grammatical errors are also slowly eliminated. Studies by Terman, Thorndike and many other investigators have shown that there is a continuous increase in the size of one's vocabulary. It was found out from the findings of Seashore that the child is able to learn 26,000 basic words at the age of eight and 34,000 basic words at the age of ten.

(d) Moral Development

As the child approaches middle childhood his capacity to understand relationship increases. His concepts of right and wrong is different but related situations emerge. By the time a child is eight or nine years old his concept become more generalised.

The child tries to understand his duties and rights as a member of the group or the gang whose member he is. During the last part of this stage, moral behaviour is oriented towards authority, law, duty and maintaining the status quo which is assumed to be a primary value.

(e) Emotional Development

Due to influence of maturation and training the expression of emotions is refined. He does experience intense emotional feeling of love, hate, fear and these endure for long periods of time along with pleasant emotion

Generally, it is at this stage that the sentiments and the complexes are formed. This period is known as a period of stability and control. Emotional behaviour starts getting its rational. Does not like to be kissed at this stage and called by nicknames. Starts telling lie and does not like unfairness of teachers and parents, etc., and express anger or fear in a refined way.

(f) Social Development

During this period the process of socialization takes place as a fast speed and qualities of self-consciousness, socialization and co-ordination, etc., takes place. He becomes well-adjusted, co-operative and stable. The child is no longer in need of close parental supervision. He spends most of his time in playing, exploring his world and learning about people and things. This new challenges and opportunities help him to develop desire of popularity. He is interested in peer group interactions and a sense of belongingness is developed.

It is found out that the child at this stage acts and dresses like rest of the gang, ready for widening of social contacts, have keen sense of right and wrong, want some social approval from parents. try many experiments and want to show their independence. He develops the feelings of sacrifice and co operation and development of team spirit and group-affinity increases in later childhood stage. Gregarious instincts ripens at this stage and the self-centered behaviour sometimes give rise to jealousies, quarrels and aggression. But this period is undoubtedly calm as compared to the storm and stress of adolescence.

Educational Implications of Childhood Stage:

(1) Children between age six and nine years have a keen desire to read and write. But their muscle coordination is still imperfect. Hence, the teacher must not over-emphasize reading and writing but between age nine and twelve reading can be encouraged.

(2) As children between six and nine years have very short span of attention, text books must not have long words. As the child grows older, the span of attention lengthens and longer words can be gradually introduced.

(3) For conceptual clarification of the classroom teaching it is better to use pictures at this stage. Not only it will make the lesson interesting but also it will help the learner to make the concept clear.

(4) During the stage of childhood interests are centered round his close associates and surroundings. Hence, lessons in personal hygiene, cleanliness and behaviour with elders is more meaningful than lessons dealing with the people and customs of a foreign country.

(5) Since abstract reasoning is not developed, teacher should give them enough opportunities to solve problems of a concrete nature. Thus more realistic concept of daily living may be given for better intellectual development.

(6) Since the time concept is of a crude nature, it is of no use of introducing 250 B.C. or 410 B.C. in front of the child. As far as possible teacher should avoid inconsistency in their behaviour, otherwise their image will be devalued.

Infancy Stage of Human Development

Development during Infancy Stage 

Introduction 

Infancy Stage of the Pre-school Period (0-5 years)

This period ranges from birth to five years of age. These years are of tremendous importance from the point of view of development. This stage has a prolonged period of dependency on parents but quite independent as regards to the basic function of the body like respiration, digestion. circulation, and maintaining constant temperature are concerned. After birth the child is called neonate (the first four weeks of life). In Hindu scriptures Infancy is called "Kumaravastha". According to Freud, the child by the age of 4-5 years, becomes, what he has to grow in the coming life. Hurlock called the infancy age as a period of "Appealing Age". Strang writes, "Infancy" is a period of foundation for his future". Thus the environment of the family and parental activities has a direct bearing and affect the future thinking,reasoning. development and style of his life.

Chief Characteristics of Infancy

During infancy, the children possess the following characteristics from the viewpoint of their physical, mental, linguistic, emotional and social development:

1. Rapid Physical Growth: Infants from birth to 3 years of age

have faster physical development than any other period of life, all their external and internal organs grow in size and weight, they accumulate physical energy. During the stage of 3 to 6 years, their physical development is rather slow, but the already developed physical organs become strong and mature.

2. Rapid Mental Growth: According to psychologists, mental development of  infants during this stage is more than any other period of life and it occurs at a very rapid rate. In the first three years of life (birth to 3 years), their brain and mental activities (attention, sensation, imagination and memory) develop and in the next three years (3 to 6 years) this development is strengthened and the instinct of curiosity becomes very strong.

3. Sharp Tendency of Imitation and Repetition: By the time an infant completes one year of age, he starts to imitate the activities and sounds of the persons he comes into contact with. In the second year, he imitate their behaviour norms. The infants mostly learn by imitation. In starts to imitate their facial expressions and in the third year, he starts to that they have learnt and this tendency to repeat helps than in learning this age group, the infants often repeat their questions, repeat the facts greatly. Due to this tendency, they learn small poems and take interest in their repetition.

4. Rapid Language Development: In the view of psychologists, Educational infancy is the most suitable period of learning a language. By the age of 1 year, an infant starts to imitate sounds, he starts to repeat the words by imitation. By the completion of 2 years of age, he starts to repeat small sentences and by the age of 3 years, he starts to express his feelings. The age from 3 to 6 years is the most important stage for learning a language At this time, whatever language is taught to him, he picks it up fast, provided he is interested in it and it is taught to him at play spontaneously. 

5. Strong Tendency of Curiosity : By the age of one year, an infant starts to inculcate the tendency of curiosity; it is another thing that he is not able to express it in the absence of language. This tendency is very strong in infants of 3 to 6 years of age, they want to know every new object and activity. This tendency is very helpful in learning.

6. Tendency of Imagination: An infant from 3 to 6 years of age has a very strong power of imagination, he often go down deep into his imaginations. Thorndike, on the basis of his experiments and observation, revealed that the infants during 3 to 6 years often live in a semi-dream state.

7. Tendency to Play : The tendency to play has four chief characteristics interest, freedom, activity and joy. This tendency is very strong in infants. They like to do those activities in which they are interested and in which they are free and in which they take joy. The infants of this age group do not accept any type of rules or bindings play, they want to play the games freely and until the time they take joy in them.Psychologists lay emphasis on deriving advantage of this tendency in their education.

8. Emotional Development : Emotions start to develop during infancy. In the beginning, an infant is dependent on others, he expects love, sympathy and cooperation from others. As he grows a little, he himself starts to display love for others. In case of inattention, be expresses anger and if he perceives fearfulness, he expresses fear. These emotions become stronger by six years of age.

9. Social Development : In the beginning, the infant behaviour is instinctive. As he comes into contact with the persons in the family and society he proceeds on the path of adjustment with them and thus his social development takes place. The infants from 2 to 3 years of age start to display interest and disinterest in the persons in their environment.

10. Intensity of Satisfaction of Needs : Children have rapid physical development during infancy, they need nutritious food. As soon as they feel hungry, they want food. The tendency to play develops rapidly during this stage. Their tendency of curiosity is very intense during this stage they desire that their questions should be answered immediately. They desire that everybody should love and cooperate with them. They want immediate action and response in every field.

11. Rapid Rate of Learning:  Infants accumulate the physical and mental capability from birth to 3 years, and on the completion of 3 years, their abilities start to become stronger. At this time, their tendencies of imitation and curiosity become very strong, so the infants learn more and faster during the age of 3 to 6 years, provided they are given opportunity to learn according to their tendency to play. Psychologists have revealed on the basis of their experiments and observations that what children learn during 6 to 12 years of age, they learn double of that during birth to 6 years of age.

Development During Infancy 

(a) Physical and Motor Development 

During infancy, the following development within the body of the child takes place, i.e., height and weight, respiration and circulation, muscular and motor development. These development takes the following shapes :

(1) The entire structure of the body starts functioning and a sort of balance comes in the various organs of the body. 

(2) Growth is very rapid, the brain develops very fast, change is seen in shape of the child, increase in arms and legs, and the sense organs rapidly develop. 

(3)Entire weight of body, coordination between the mind and the body of three, child starts at the age of three, and speed of the nervous system is quite fast and quick. 

(4) At the age of five a child will be about 35 to 40 inches tall and will weight about 35 pounds. 

(5) Almost all the organs of the body start functioning during this period and so there is a balance and co- ordination in the action and activities during this period. 

(6) The process of muscle maturation is very slow and motor skills are acquired very slowly.

 The psychologists have studied the development of various motor skills in children which are given below :

Thus it can be said that physical development here includes height and weight of the child (length 16 to 18 inches and weight 6 to 8 pounds at the time of birth to 35 to 40 inches tall and weight about 35 pound at age 5), respiration and circulation (lungs develop rapidly and breathing capacity is increased and heart grows in size but developmental rate of the heart varies with children); Muscular development (slow development and proceeds from bigger to smaller muscles) and motor development (motor skills are acquired very slowly, to grasp an object an infant will exhibit several unnecessary movements of the shoulders, upper arms and elbows, and action refined in advances in age and greater speed in movements). Thus motor growth is the development of strength, speed and precision in the use of arms.

(b) Intellectual development in relation to perception, Imagination, concept formation and Language development :

(1) A new born child perceptions are vague and diffused. Gradually the child is able to discriminate between differences in brightness and colour. The sense of taste develops and sensitivity to pain become keener. The child can distinguish between heat and cold and is able to be aware of his biological need between the age of three years. Between 3 and 6 years, colour attracts more attention and by the age of 5 a child is able to differentiate between letter and number forms. Self-concept is, however, hardly developed but the ability to perceive the shape of objects develops.

(2) Imagination and memory are very active and strong. Children at this stage love repetition and love nursery rhymes and songs, fairy tales and fantasy.

(3) Child's concepts are concrete and determined by immediate perception but not acquired the concept of conservation. Concept formation is difficult in relation to the difference between day and night.

(4) The period from 3 to 5 years is the phase of rapid mental development. Vocabulary develop and child talks incessantly. The how and why questions are more predominant. Abstract thinking is not proper but the child learns by trial and error. The concept of time develop gradually but the concept of quantity is cleaner, able to count in small series.

(5) According to Burt-The child may concentrate 4-5 minutes at the age of 3 and 5 to 6 minutes at the age of 4 and learn things as a whole rather than by parts. 

(c) Language Development :

Regarding language development it can be said that the first word is uttered around the child's first birthday. After few months of the 1st year dramatic improvements occur. Development of growth of vocabulary are presented below approximately:

Thus, the development of language helps the child to differentiate between objects of his environment and increases his self-identity.

(d) Emotional Development :

Woodworth says that emotion is stirred up state of an organism. The following are the emotional development during infancy.

(1) Emotional response of the new born is undifferentiated excitement. As the child grows in age he expreses distress and delight, anger and fear, elation and affection. Jealousy appears by about 18 months of age and joy further differentiates from elation and affection.

(2) In early infancy any sudden or intense stimulus such as a flash of light or loud noise, etc., produce fear. Physical injury and other bodily discomforts, strange objects, dogs, doctor, blood, ghosts, death, lighting, dark places and loneliness develop fear.

(3) Anger is aroused and cause violent kicking, yelling and even rolling on the floor. Happiness is expressed when parents or elder brother or sister plays with him by clapping his hands and jumping up and down at the age of 4. 

(4) Gradually child uses language to express his emotions rather than violent reactions. Infants show fear, anger, love and hate from the beginning of life and the emotions are spontaneous.

(5) The emotions of the child are intense and common emotions of children during infancy are Fear, Anger and Jealousy.

(e) Moral Development :

Moral behaviour means behaviour in conformity with moral code of the social group.

It is a well known fact that during infancy the moral development of the child has not taken place and so he is not able to distinguish between right and wrong. He is guided by the advice and directions of his elders and parents. Thus. Hurlock have the opinion that since the infant has no conscience, what is told to him by parents is taken by him either as bad or good according to their direction.

(f) Social Development :

Social development means acquisition or the ability to behave in accordance with social expectations or attaining of maturity in social relationship (Hurlock, 1950). The following are the social behaviour during Infancy :

(1) Smilling is the first social behaviour that appears at the third month. He imitates the speech sound of others at the 9th month. From 15th month the baby shows increasing interest in adults and a desire to be with them. The child start imitating each other during the second year and adjust and cooperate in play by the time they become three years old.

(2) The mother is the first company of the infant and early socialisation develops between the infant and the mother is called attachment. Hurlock called it a security blanket of the child. The child is self-centred in his social behaviour. Quarrelling, negativism and aggression, etc., found out with children. With the increase in age the child becomes increasingly anxious to win the approval of others and choose company from members of the same sex and become increasingly aware of themselves as people.

(g) Educational Importance of Infancy :

(i) During this period the children are too young to cope up with the work of the primary school but they are mature enough to start preparing for it. Thus, Kindergarten training is very important to expose the child to get the first experiences of school life. He gets accustomed to being separated from his mother and learns to adjust to a fixed schedule. Hence, learning atmosphere of the nursery school should be lively, interesting and joyful.

(ii) Activity must form an integral part of nursery training. As the children are acquiring new motor skills, they have an innate urge to practise them. Thus activity based teaching like action song and games like running, skipping and jumping and repetition type of work can be practised for effective training in the nursery school.

(iii) As eye movements and hand to eye co-ordination are not perfect during infancy, reading and writing must not be given undue emphasis.

(iv) The immediate problem of the new school entrant is separation from his mother. Sometime the child may require special attention, but the teacher must neither be too harsh nor should she be over indulgent.

(v) During the first 3/4 years, the child is the centre of attention at home. But due to training in nursery school the child changes in his attitude and learns that he cannot have his own way in everything. Thus, teachers of Kindergarten schools should give more emphasis on social and emotional development of the child rather than rigid type of cognitive development through teaching of the three R's only.

Important Facts of Educational Psychology

Important Facts of  Educational Psychology

 ☆ The main relation of education psychology is with learning.l this statement is - Sorre and Telford

  ☆ In which book was the foundation stone of psychology laid - Principles of Psychology

 ☆The author of 'Principal of Psychology' published in America is - William James

 ☆ present form of education psychology is – Comprehensive

☆ According to Garrison, the aim of education psychology is – Behavior Science

 According to Kuppu Swami, the best use of the principles of Education Psychology is - in 'best education' and 'best learning'.

 ☆  According to Kolesniek, the main purpose of education psychology is to solve the problems of education.

 ☆  According to Kelly, the objectives of educational psychology are – Nine

 ☆ According to Skinner the general objectives of educational psychology are – child development

 ☆ According to Skinner, the specific objectives of education psychology are – to help determine the level and goals of education according to the desired behavior of children.

☆  The field of education psychology includes all those knowledge and methods which are helpful in understanding better than the process of learning.

 ☆  According to Gates, education is the limit of psychology - 'volatile' and changing

 ☆  “Only on the basis of the particular condition, we should call someone a child, young or old.” This is the statement – ​​Frobelka

 ☆   Education should be the basis of principles according to Herbert - Psychologist

   ☆  According to Montessori, teaching work can be done effectively by a teacher only in that condition, when he has knowledge – of ‘experimental’ form of psychology.

   ☆ There is a need of education psychology in the present time – child centered education

   ☆ In the present time the need of education psychology is understood in -all-round development

  ☆  The main advantage of education psychology is – teacher  learner sweet relationship

  ☆  To recognise the students in the class on the basis of their differences, the teacher should have knowledge of – Education Psychology

 ☆ Why are the periods of maths, science or difficult subject placed first in the time table? - on the basis of psychology

  ☆   For successful and effective education learning process it is necessary – Teaching Learning Material Usage and Education Psychology Principles Use

 ☆  Which subject is used more in guidance and counseling? - Education Psychology

  ☆  Contribution to curriculum development is made on the basis of students' ability and interest.

  ☆  IQ is the test subject of – Education Psychology 

☆ The teacher educates by the knowledge of the children by the knowledge of psychology, by knowing about the nature, by knowing the nature, and by taking information about the economic status and family situation and gives education.

☆  The contribution of psychology in the field of education is – now education child centered has teacher children close contact efforts to establish and teacher students need knowledge may l

☆ Education psychology is a science of -educational  principles

☆ Education is considered to be the origin of psychology –  year 1900

☆ In parallel with the word 'psychology', the English language word 'psychology' is derived from which language?

☆ Education psychology is related to – Education,Philosophy and Psychology

☆ The literal meaning of education is to nurture, bring to the fore, and give vision.

☆ “Psychology is the science of the activities of persons coming in contact with the environment.” This is the statement – ​​Woodworth 

☆ “Psychology is the basic science of education” is the statement – ​​Skinner

 ☆ What is the relationship between the subject-content of education psychology – learning

☆ The children whose behavior is studied in educational psychology, are – retarded, intellect, backward and problematic.

☆ Educational psychology studies within the process of learning – the study of the effects of motivation and reinforcement.

☆"Psychology is the science of the mind" This is the statement -  Aristotle

    ☆ “Educational psychology is the cornerstone of the preparation of teachers. This is the statement – ​​Skinner’s

   ☆ To manage the data, the following work has to be done in relation to the collected data: – Classification, Tabulation, Graphic representation

   ☆ Psychology gives help in the field of education and tells--the aims of education are possible or not.

    ☆The  teacher should study education psychology because, so that with its help can make your teaching more effective.

    ☆“Psychology is the pure science of behavior.” The exponent of this definition is – E.Watson

    ☆The unconscious mind is studied by – psychoanalysis methods

   ☆ The father of the psychoanalytic system is – Singmond Fried

  ☆ In the present time there is psychology- behavior science

 ☆  Education is not a subject area of ​​psychology – EducationalEvaluation

   ☆ 'Education is obtained at a certain place'.

  ☆ The meaning of 'psychic' is - human, soul or mind.

   ☆ Psychology is called the science of behavior – Watson

   ☆  "Psychology is the scientific study of the mind", which includes not only intellectual, but also emotional experiences, motivating forces and actions or behavior.

   ☆ Psychology – Soul Science, Mind Science, Consciousness Science

 ☆ The factor affecting the human mind is – Person's interests,aptitudes, aptitudes, atmosphere 

 ☆ Psychology is pure science mind – James Drever

 ☆ Education Psychology –is a part of psychology

 ☆ It can be said in relation to the nature of education psychology.

 ☆ Under Psychology – Human Study is done

 ☆ The purpose of the study of educational psychology is to influence the learning of a thing by the students.

 ☆ Psychology helps in the field of education and clarifies the possibility of the purpose of education.

 ☆ The teacher does not have a direct need for the study of educational psychology.

 Manoyan is related to the study of animal behavior, while the field of education psychology is the study of human behavior, it is related to human behavior in educational situations.

 ☆ The parts of the teaching process are the Objectives of Teaching, the Evaluation of Teaching , the Knowledge Experience that make Teaching Meaningful.

 ☆ The basic purpose of education psychology is – keeping in mind the students' abilities and abilities, it affects the things that they learn about something.

 ☆ Education is related to – Education Aim and Classroom Environment Environment

 ☆ Education is the field of psychology

☆ The general purpose of education psychology is – childs personalitydevelopment,teaching workhelpand teachingmethodsimprovement

 “On the basis of the experiences of a particular person, we should call someone a child, young and old.” This is the statement – ​​Frobelka

 The main aim of education psychology is child-centred

Curriculum- Meaning, Definition, Characteristices, Goals, Scope, Need and Importance, Present Defects

Meaning and Definition of Curriculum

The meaning of curriculum

Scholars in the curriculum field have sometimes become lost in arguments about the semantics of curriculum definitions. A definition commonly used during the thirties and forties was "the curriculum of a school is all the experiences that pupils have under the guidance of that school". A counter definition, generally considered to be too broad, was "a child's curriculum in a given day of his life is all that he or she experiences from the moment of waking to the moment of falling asleep." The other definition of curriculum is "the planned and guided learning experiences and intended learning outcomes, formulated through the systematic reconstruction of knowledge and experience, under the auspices of the school, for the learner's continuous and willful growth in personal-social competence."

Persons have interpreted the term 'curriculum' very differently: over the years. Oliva (1988) provides us with an interesting range:

• Curriculum is that which is taught in school. 

• Curriculum is a set of subjects.

• Curriculum is content.

• Curriculum is a set of materials.

• Curriculum is a set of performance objectives.

• Curriculum is that which is taught both inside and outside of school directed by the school.

1. Etymological Meaning of Curriculum 

The term 'curriculum' has originated from the Latin word 'currere' meaning 'race-course'.

We can say that it is the course which a person has to run across to arrive at the destination. From this viewpoint, education becomes a race which is run on the course of curriculum, and by which the aim of personality development of a child is achieved.

2. Narrow Meaning of Curriculum

In its narrow sense, the term 'curriculum' is considered synonym of 'course of study or syllabus', which limits the facts of some subjects. Thus, in its narrow sense, curriculum is limited to only bookish knowledge. There is no place in it for a child's needs, interests, attitudes, aptitude, abilities and activities pertaining to practical life. In brief, we can say that in its narrow sense, by curriculum is meant that course in which only bookish knowledge is provided to students.

3.Wider Meaning of Curriculum

In its wide sense, the term curriculum' comprises of all those experiences which a child receives in and out of classroom for his all-round development keeping in with his needs, interests, aptitudes, attitudes and abilities, through different activities such as studies, games and co-curricular activities.

According to Munroe, curriculum comprises of all those educational experiences which are obtained for the realization of educational aims.

According to Bent and Kroneberg, curriculum is the systematic form of contents of studies which is prepared for meeting the needs of students.

In brief we can say that by curriculum is meant all those experiences and activities organised for students which are their and the society's all-round development.

Definitions of Curriculum

1. "It (curriculum) is a tool in the hands of the artist (teacher) to mould his material (pupil) according to his ideal (objective) in his studio (school)." Cunninghan

2. "Curriculum should be conceived as an epitome of the whole of knowledge and experience of the human race."       -Frobel

3. "Curriculum, in its broader sense, includes the complete school environment, involving all the course, activities, reading and associations furnished to the pupils in the school." -Rudyard K. Bent and Henry H. Kroneber

4. "Curriculum embodies all the experiences which are offered to learner under spices or direction of the school."    -R. Dall 

5. "Subject matter of learning or curriculum is identical with all the objects, ideals and principles which enter as resources obstacles into the continuous intentional pursuit at a of action."    -John Dewey

6. "Curriculum embodies all the experiences which are utilized by the school to attain the aims of education."      -Munroe

7. "Curriculum does not mean only he academic subject traditionally taught in the school, but it includes the totality of experiences that a pupil receives through manifold activities that go in the school, in the classroom, librarian, laboratory, workshop playground and the numerous informal contracts between teacher and pupils. In this sense the whole life of the school becomes the curriculum which can touch the life of the students at all points and help in the evolution of a balanced personality."-Secondary Education Commission

Curriculum is everything that is planned by school personnel. To define curriculum as 'what is taught schools in course, very vague. Persons often talk about the  curriculum of a school is all the experiences that pupils have under the guidance of that school".  curriculum' in this general way and they tend to mean by this the range of subjects taught and the amount of instruction time given to each in terms of hours or minutes.

Characteristics of Curriculum

Characteristics of Curriculum: The above definitions indicate the following characteristics of the concept of curriculum:

1. It is pivot around which whole human knowledge concentrates.

2. Curriculum is a tool in the hands of the teacher. Which is used to realise the objectives.

3. It is more than teaching and learning and includes practice, activities, industry vocation and acquiring knowledge. 

4. It includes those activities which are used by the school to attain the purpose of education. 

5. It has been described as the environment in motion (physical, social and psychological). 

6. The curriculum is made up of everything that surrounds the learner in all his working terms. 

7. All the learning inside or outside the school which is planned and guided by the curriculum. 

8. Curriculum includes total learning experience that a child receives at a school. It help in realising objectives. 

9. A programme of activities designed to realise the objectives is known as curriculum. 

10. It includes content method of teaching and purpose of education.

Goals of Curriculum

There are many goals of curriculum. Some goals are as follows: 

1. To take in mind the individual differences of the pupils like capabilities, interest etc. 

2. To provide continuous and systematic experiences from beginning to the end to the pupils.

3. To develop the view of adopting concept. 

4. To lay foundation for rich, useful and moral life so that the child may contribute for social welfare.

5. To give the training of those methods in which mathematical methods are used.

6. To develop the thinking, searching, understanding and decision making abilities of a child for moral development. 

7. To develop appropriate social and economic relations, so that the child may lead life in family, school and society.

8. To create new values for themselves by means of their resourcefulness, courage, behaviour and scientific attitude.

9. To develop interest and abilities in child for search.

10. To develop the all round personality of a pupil and to develop appropriate mental and emotional point of views and habits. 

Need and Importance of Curriculum for Education Process.

The need's of the Curriculum have been merited as follows:

1. The vocational and technical education prepare the students for different jobs. During British period, clerks were prepared through educational curriculum.

2. The mental aspects are trained and developed, thus faculties are trained by teaching various school subjects.

3. The human can acquire knowledge while other species can not acquire knowledge. It is an important aspect of human beings.

4. The ability of self-realisation is also developed by education and to make a good man. 

5. The interests and attitudes are developed according to the students potentialities. Curriculum is designed as child-centered approach.

6. The good citizens are prepared by developing democratic way life. It also develops the ability and capacity of teaching. 

7. It brings perfection in child. It helps in all-around development.

8. It also prepares for scientific inventions and technical development. 

9. The education is given always for future life so that he can earn his living.

10. It also develops the feeling of appreciation and sound judgement.

Defects of present Curriculum

The present Curriculum has the following weakness or defects:

1. It is narrowly conceived.

2. It is not useful to attain the goals of education.

3. It has neither served the interests of the students geared to the needs of the community.

4. It makes inadequate provision for practical activities.

5. It is unwidely, bulky and overcrowded. 

6. It is bookish and theoretical.

7. It has neither social relevance nor it has a graduated content within the class, or with the classes following or preceding it. 

8. It merely prepares students for university education. It does not give them knowledge of fundamental concepts nor does it build proper and healthy attitudes in them.

9. It does not prepare students for life.

10. It makes no provision for vocational and technical training. 

11. It is examination-dominated.

12. It does not cater to the needs and capacities of pupils. 

13. It does not make provision for meeting differences in abilities and aptitudes of different pupils. There is no diversification of courses to channelized and capitalised different interests.

14. It is far removed from the real course of life. It is unable to adapt itself fruitfully to the exigencies of new circumstances.

15. It does not secure the all-around development of their personalities. The entire range of pupil's experiences and capacities intellectual, physical, emotional, aesthetic and social is not covered.