Pavlov's Classical or Respondent Conditioning Theory (S-R Theories without Reinforcement)

 Pavlov's Classical or Respondent Conditioning Theory (S-R Theories without Reinforcement)

The theory of classical conditioning was developed by a Russian physiologist named Ivan P. Pavlov in the year 1904. It is defined as a process in which a neutral stimulus, by pairing with a natural stimulus, acquires all the characteristics of natural stimulus. It is called substitution learning because we substitute a neutral stimulus in place of a natural stimulus. This is also called as respondent conditioning because the subject has noting to do himself and becomes conditioned and does the things. To understand the nature of the process of conditioning, the experiments performed by Pavlov is given below:

Experiment

Pavlov kept a dog hungry for a few days and then placed it in a sound proof room which was fitted with certain mechanically controlled devices. The observer himself remained hidden from the dog but was able to view the experiment by means of a set of mirrors. Arrangement was made to give food to the dog through an automatic mechanism. But everytime before giving food a bell was rung. When the food was given and the bell was rung it was marked that there was a automatic secretion of saliva from the mouth of the dog This activity was repeated several times. After several trials the dog was given no food but the bell was rung. It was found that even the absence of food (the natural stimulus) the ringing of the bell (an artificial stimulus) caused the dog to secrete the saliva (natural response).

The above experiment thus, brings to light four essential elements of the conditioning process, i.e., unconditioned stimulus (US. natural stimulus) is food results in a natural response called the unconditioned response (UR). The conditioned stimulus (CS, artificial stimulus) elicit conditioned response (CR). It is given below.

1. UCS                     -                 UCR

   (Food)                                    (Saliva)

2. CS+ UCS             -                 UCR(Bell+ Food)                             (Saliva)

3. CS                        -                 CR   

 (Bell)                                 (Saliva)

Principles of Conditioning

1. Reinforcement: The salivary response to the bell was strengthened as a r

esult of the food being repeatedly presented just after the bell rang.

2. Extinction: If the bell was rung too many times without the food to reinforce, the response could have disappeared.

3. Generalisation: The dog tended to respond to any sound roughly similar to the ringing of the bell.

4. Discrimination: To teach the dog to distinguish the right sound and other sounds, selective reinforcement was used, that is, the dog was given food only after the sound of the bell, but never any other sound.

Educational Implications

(i) The formation of positive attitudes, fears, love. prejudices or hatred towards an object. phenomenon or event can be developed through conditioning. Thus classical conditioning can be used to develop favourable or unfavourable attitude towards learning. teacher and the school.

(ii) We should associate faults with punishment so that whenever a child feels like committing faults, he/ she anticipates the punishments. Thus rewards and punishments may be given right at the time of the act and not to be delayed.

(iii) Repetition and habit formation is to be strengthed in the process of learning.

(iv) Most of our learning is associated with the process of conditioning from the beginning. Thus the teacher is to develop the good reading habits through conditioning.

(v) The process of conditioning not only helps us in learning what is desirable but also helps in eliminating, avoiding or unlearning of undesirable habits, unhealthy attitudes, phobias through deconditioning.

Thornsdike's Theory of Trial and Error (S-R theory with Reinforcement or Reward)

 

Thornsdike's Theory of Trial and Error 

(S-R theory with Reinforcement or Reward)

Meaning

Edward Lee Thorndike (1874-1949) was the first American psychologist who introduced the concept of reward (reinforcement) for learning and conducted a series of experiments as learning with animals. All learning, according to him, is the formation of bond or connections between stimulus response. In any act of learning, the learner is only acquiring a series of new responses and hence any description of the learning process is only a description of how a learner acquires and stabilises a new series of responses.

Thornsdike's Classical Experiment

Thorndike conducted a number of experiments on animals to explain the process of learning. His most widely quoted experiment is with cats placed in a puzzle or problem box. He put a hungry cat in a puzzle box. There was only one door which should be opened by correctly manipulating a latch or by pulling a loop of string hanging inside the box. A fish was placed outside the box. The smell of the fish acted as a strong motive for the hungry cat to come out of the box. The cat indulged a number of random activities or movements inside the box indicating trial and error type of behaviour-clawing at the bars, biting at the bars or wires, scratching the box, walking around, pulling and jumping, etc., to come out to get food. After a number of random movements the latch was manipulated accidentally and the cat came-out and got the food (reward). Over a series of successive trials the cat took shorter and shorter time and committed less number of errors and was in a position to manipulate the latch as soon as it was put in the box and learnt the art of opening the door.

Thorndike found that it was only after many random trials that the cat was able to hit upon the solution. He said it is a trial and error learning. An analysis of the learning behaviour of the cat in the box conforms that there was motivation, goal, exploration (random movements) and reinforcement, etc., in the learning process. Thus learning is the result of connection or bond formation between the stimulus and response.

Laws of Learning

On the basis of the experiments Thorndike suggested certain laws which governed human learning. The primary laws suggested are the laws of readiness, exercise and effect.

1. The Law of Readiness

The term readiness refers to preparedness of the organism in a certain manner which immediately precede the action. If the child is ready to learn, he/she learns more quickly. effectively and with greater satisfaction than if he/she is not ready to learn. Thus the law of readiness means mental preparation for action and not to force the child to learn if he is not ready. Therefore, the teacher should make an attempt to motivate the students by stimulating their attention, interest and curiosity.

2. The Law of Effect

The law explains the importance of effect or consequence in strengthening and weakening of connection. While success brings with it satisfaction and strengthening of the relation the failure increases dis-satisfaction and the absence of the relation among the facts weakens them. Therefore, all pleasant experiences have a lasting influence and are remembered for a long time, while the unpleasant ones are soon forgotten. Thus the law emphasises the role of rewards and punishment in the process of learning.

3. The Law of Exercise

The law explains the role of practice in learning. It has two sub-laws, I.e.. law of use and law of disuse. With practice the connection is strengthened (use) and when practice is discontinued, connection is weakened (disuse).

All these three laws are significant in many kinds of learning in our life and can be mentioned like "you can lead a horse to the water but you cannot make it drink". "Nothing succeeds like success", and "practice makes a man perfect" In addition to the above Thorndike mentioned five subordinate laws of learning. These are as follows:

Subordinate Laws of Learning

a. Law of multiple response or varied reaction. This laws implies that when an individual is confronted with a new situation he responds in a variety of ways trying first one response and then another before arriving at the correct one.

b. Law of attitude or mental set. Learning is guided by a total attitude or 'set' of the organism. The learner performs the task properly if he/she has developed a healthy attitude towards the work.

c. Law of partial activity: This suggests the capacity of the learner to deal with the relevant part of the situation which is directly related to his learning effort. The law states that the learner makes selective responses in a learning situation.

d. Law of analogy: This law suggests that new situations are tackled on the basis of older ones or previous experience.

e. Law of associative shifting: This law states that we may "get any response of which a learner is capable, associated with any situation to which he is sensitive.

Characteristics of S-R Theory

The factors that this theory reveals about the process of learning are its characteristics. 

(1) This theory supports connectionism, this is another thing that a considers only the establishment of relationship between stimulus and response as learning. In the process of learning, previous experiences and new experiences are also connected to each other

(2) According to this theory, application of the acquired knowledge is learning, we cannot call the knowledge as learning until it has not been used.

(3) This theory considers that the objective is necessary for learning and it considers it necessary for a motive or drive to be behind the objective, and it considers the presence of a stimulus which is helpful to the realization of the objective.

(4) This theory considers effort by the learner as necessary. According to it, a learner learns correct response by trial and error. 

(5) Thorndike has propounded some laws on the basis of this theory following which the process of teaching-learning becomes effective. 

Shortcomings of S-R Theory

(1) This theory was propounded on the basis of experiments performed on animals, this does not apply fully on the learning process of man.

(2) According to this theory, a stimulus is necessary for learning while man responds even without any stimulus, and learns as well. 

(3) This theory talks of arriving at the correct response by trial and error, while man performs the correct response by insight. 

(4) This theory considers man a biological machine and learning mechanical process, while there is a vital role played by intelligence thinking, logic and reasoning in the learning by man.

(5) This theory lays emphasis on learning by trial and error, which takes much time.

Educational Implications of the trial and error learning

Thorndike's theory is of great significance in the field of education or teaching-learning process. He has stressed the following five things which assist in the progress of learning. These are:

(i) interest in the work,

(ii) interest in improvement,

(iii) significance,

(iv) attitude,

(v) attentiveness.

He encouraged the psychological revolution in the field of education and emphasized the study of elements according to specific situations and motivation in learning. It has also given an impetus to drill and practice and highlighted the importance of rewards and praise in the field of learning.

Types of Learning

Learning 

Types of Learning

Learning has been classified by psychologists and educationists in various ways depending upon the domain specific (cognitive, affective and conative) aspects of human behaviour, l.e.. verbal learning, concept learning, learning of principles, problem solving, attitudinal learning, and learning of skills or motor learning as compared to the learning according to the methods or techniques that are employed for the Introduction of behavioural changes, l.e, conditioning (Classical and Operant), discrimination learning, chain learning, serial learning, associative learning and insightful learning and so on.

However, as an alternative basis Gagne has classified learning into eight types in a hierarchical order. These eight types are the following.

1. Signal or classical conditioning

2. SR learning or instrumental or operant conditioning 

3. Chain learning

4. Verbal associate learning 

5. Discrimination learning

6. Concept learning

7. Learning of principles, and 

8. problem solving

1 & 2. Conditioning (Classical and operant)

Conditioning is considered by many psychologists to be the fundamental form of learning. Conditioning always involves the substitution of one stimulus for another and the forcing of an association between them. A child sucks a nipple when hungry and withdraws from painful stimuli. Thus a child acquires new patterns of responses. Both the classical and operant conditioning are given in details subsequently.

3 & 4. Chain learning (Verbal and motor)

There are mainly two types of chaining, L.e., motor and verbal. Chaining means the connection of a set of individual S R in sequence. Virtually all the learning taking place in formal education is verbal learning. The language we speak and the communication devices we use are the product of verbal learning signs, pictures, symbols, words, figures, sounds and voices are employed by the individual as essential instruments for engaging in the process of learning.

Similarly, when learning involves primarily the use of muscles, it is called motor learning. In this type, the individual acquires new muscular coordinations as a mode of response to some situation. Learning to walk, to operate a typewriter, to swim, to play hockey, to play a musical instrument, drawing a geometrical design, riding a horse, driving a car, flying a plane, etc., are examples of motor learning.

5. Discrimination learning

In this type of learning, the subject is presented with two or more stimuli which differ in some detail. Here the task is to distinguish between the two situations. An infant before he can talk, generally learns to distinguish between his mother and his aunt, between milk and some other drink, and a dog and doll and so on.

6. Concept learning

A concept is a generalized idea about things, persons or events in the form of a mental image. The concept of "tree" is a mental image that throws up the similarities or common properties of all the different trees we know. We will call a thing "tree" when it had some specific characteristics, the image of which we have already acquired in our mind on account of our previous experience, perception and exercise of imagination. All our behaviour, verbal, symbolic, motor as well as cognitive are influenced by our concepts.

7. Learning of Principles

It depends on learning of concept formation and other forms of learning. There is a large number of principles that every individual masters in order to function properly in the environment. Most of the classroom learning contributes to the development of principles.

8. Problem Solving

It comes at the highest stage in the hierarchy of learning process. This learning requires the use of the cognitive abilities like reasoning, thinking, the power of observation, discrimination, generalisation, imagination, the ability to infer. draw conclusions and try out novel ways and experimenting. etc., by the learner Details are given separately.

Learning

Learning

Introduction

Learning occupies a very important place in our life. When the child is born, his/her mind is just like a clean slate. As soon as he/she comes in contact with his/her environment, he/she starts reacting and in this process of interaction of thehelp  individual within his/her environment, the
foundation of learning are laid down. It is only with the of the learning that the child learns many things and modifies his/her behaviour. Thus, experience, direct or indirect is found to play a dominant role in moulding and shaping the behaviour of the individual from the very beginning. The changes in behaviour brought about by experience are known as learning. The following are some of the definitions of learning.

Meaning and Definition of Learning 

There are some such tasks which a man learns in his natural and social environment, such as climbing up a tree, swimming in water, speaking a particular language, etc. These activities are called learned actions by psychologists. The process of learning these activities is called learning. Psychologist Woodworth, has defined it in this form. In his words:

The process of acquiring new knowledge and new responses is the process of learning.   

                                                                                                                              -Woodworth

Crow and Crow have taken it in a little wider form. In their words:                     

Learning is the acquisition of habits, knowledge and attitudes.                  -Crow and Crow

But most of the psychologists have defined learning as the process of behavioural change. In the words of Gates and others: 

Learning is the modification of behaviour through experience and training.

                                                                                                                 -Gates and others 

According to psychologist Charles E Skiner, man does not effect a change to his behaviour only for the sake of behavioural change, rather he also adjusts himself with the environment. He has defined learning on the basis of this fact. In his words:

Learning is a process of progressive behaviour adaptation.                    -C.E. Skiner

Hilgard has defined learning keeping these two factors before him. In his words: 

Learning is the process by which behaviour is originated or changed through practice or training.                         -Hilgard

According to Blair, Jones and Simpson, learning is neither behavioural change nor adjustment with the environment by behavioural change. According to them, learning should enable an individual to face the circumstances in the future, beside these two. In their words:

Any change of behaviour which is a result of experience and which causes people to face later situations differently, may be called learning.                      -Blair, Jones and Simpson

Some facts about the learning process:

1. Learning means acquisition of experience.

2. Learning means acquisition, retention and modification of experience. 

3. Learning is a change of behaviour.

4. Learning depends on practice and experience. 

5. Learning is acquisition of habit, skill and knowledge.

6. Learning is a process and not a product.

7. Learning is a continuous process and continues death.

8. Learning is purposive and goal directed.

9. Learning is a creative experience. 

10. Learning is Universal.

Nature of Learning

The nature and general characteristics of learning are as follows:

1. Learning is universal

Learning is not having any boundary. It is not restricted to any particular age, sex, race or cultures. It is applicable to all the living creatures, although, the degree of learning varies from creature to creature.

2. Learning is purposeful and goal directed

Learning is not an aimless activity. It provides clues and hints to the learner that there is something behind in learning and children learn with that hope and aspiration.

3. Learning is a continuous or never-ending process

Learning starts from birth and continues till death. It is a never ending process. At each stage the learner acquires new ideas and achieves something new, which is a continuous process.

4. Learning occurs both formal and informal situations

The child learns many things. He/She acquires new habits, skills and gains new information. Many things the child learns in a formal situation like that of a school. But a great many of these the child learns in informal situation in a family or with his/her friends when he/she is travelling, playing in an incidental manner.

5. Learning is the process of solving problems

In fact, all learning is problem solving. The child learns many thing during the course of time and try to apply all these to achieve a solution for a novel situation. Learning rules and principles help him/her to produce changes in his/her behaviour and abandonment of existing behaviour.

6. Learning is adjustment

Learning is the process of adjustment. The individual must learn to adjust himself/herself to the changes that take place around him/her. It prepares an individual for any adjustment and adaptation that may be necessary.

7. Learning Involves various dimensions of psychological and mental activities

For the effective learning both psychological, e.g.. motivation, Interest and ability and physiological bases, i.e.. nervous systems, brain, spinal cord, glands, etc., are essential. Therefore in schools children must be provided opportunity to learn by doing or learn by activity for effective learning.

8. Learning is more than academic mastery of subjects

In schools we generally think that learning is concerned with subjects and acquisition of information of facts. But learning is beyond to that and we learn different traits or characteristics, attitudes, values, interests, etc., rather than only mastery on academic subjects..

9. Learning is the function of practice

There is a saying that practice makes a man perfect. In this context practice does not mean repeating a response. It is repeated efforts of an individual to react to a situation effectively. Thus, practice help to drop out awkward, unhythmic and unnecessary responses and leads to improvement in learning.

10. Learning is a Process

Through learning modification of behaviour takes place. It constantly enlarges the child's understanding, leads to growth of abilities, perception and intellect. Though the entire learning situation is a very complex process yet the favourable environment can bring desirable and satisfactory growth on the part of the individual which is the ultimate goal of the learning.

11. Difference in learning is due to environment

12. Learning is a self-directed activity

13. Learning may be correct or incorrect

14 Learning is manifold in nature

15. Learning Involves perceptual operation and motor processes

Factors Affecting Influencing/Associated with Learning

The factors which are responsible for bringing about the betterment and improvement in learning or influence or associated with learning are given below :

(a) Maturation

Development of a child takes place because of two basic but complex processes-learning and maturation. Learning is possible only when a certain stage of maturation is reached. Psychologists have suggested that learning is effective if the activities or subject matter is at a rate commensurate with the development of the child.

(b) Motivation

Motivation is the very heart of the learning process. Motivation sets the activity which results in learning or it is the art of stimulating interest in the pupil and gives the direction to learning. Thus the teacher should apply various devices in the class room to motivate the children.

(c) The Organism and Perception

All knowledge is based on some sense perception. The loss of or defects in any sense means that knowledge and learning are impoverished in proportion to the loss. Learning is dependent on the relative perfection of the senses and the general condition of the organism. If there will be organic defects (visual, auditory, focal Infections and adenoids, etc.), then learning will be affected.

(d) Intellectual Ability or Capacity

It is a fact that various species of animals have different capacities to learn. Man is known to have greater capacity to learn then other living things. We know that human beings differ in their abilities to learn. On the basis of the Terman and Merril Intellectual classification we classify them as feeble. minded, normal or in the genius class in terms of their ability to learn. 

(e) Psychological Safety

Learning is a process of interaction in which the learner actively participates in the learning situation. Thus, the learner should be provided psychological satisfaction or safe situation so that he/she can participate freely and safely in the learning process.

(f) Readiness

If a person is ready to learn, the learning process will be more active. Thus the teacher should stimulate and develop the mental readiness in the children for effective learning in addition to seating arrangement, ventilation, light facilities and excessive noise.

(g) Drawing of a Study Schedule

A schedule is often useful in setting up regular habits of study and thus enabling the learner to make maximum use of his/her time and energy. A schedule acts as a challenge, as well as a guide and monitor. Thus drawing of a study schedule makes the learner attentive and persistent in learning.

(h) Attacking the Assignment Vigorously

Learning is an active, effortful process. There is no more effective method of study than merely to read the words of a book passively, waiting for the material somehow to register itself on the "mind". If the learner attack the learning task vigorously he/she can be a successful person than the passive group.

(i) Family Background and Socio-economic Status

Research in the field of family background and socio-economic status proved that learning achievement, attitudes, values and ability of the students are different due to urban and rural environment and socio-economic conditions of the family.

(j) Effect of Age on Learning

Learning capacity varies with age. Age accompanies mental maturation. The teacher, while constructing curriculum should keep in mind the various stage of the development of the child and adopt various methods of instructional process according to the age and grade level of the students.

(k) Environment

The progress and process of learning is very much under the influence of the environment. Therefore, the teacher should see that environment of the institution is congenial and cheerful otherwise it may affect the learning process, if it is not healthy.

(l) Fatigue and Bad Working Conditions

Fatigue is the state in which the organism is exhausted and requires rest. In a state of fatigue, the output is diminished or lowered efficiency or the quality is impaired. Fatigue may be muscular, sensory or mental. This may be due to bad seating arrangement, unhealthy atmosphere, poor environment, poor light, noise and over crowdedness, etc., affects the learning capacity. Similarly, learning is hampered by bad working conditions or distraction both at home and school.

(m) Difficulty, Meaningfulness and Length of Material

It is a fact that more difficult the learning material, the poor is the learning. Therefore, experimental studies have clearly indicated that more meaningful the material, the rapid is the learning. Being meaningful means that the material conveys some sense and has some associations and previous experience with the learner. There is little learning without meaning.

 PIAGET'S DEVELOPMENTAL STAGES

Jean Piaget advanced a quite new theory of development of cognitive abilities. He proposes that cognitive development proceeds through an orderly sequence of stages. The important concept of his theory of cognitive development is not the age at which the child moves from preferred mode of response to another but the fixed progression from one stage to another. The child cannot adopt the strategies of a later stage at an early stage of development without having first acquired and exercised the strategies of earlier stage.

The stages of cognitive development are related in that they represent forms of adaption but these forms are qualitatively different; that is the adaptive functions' are transformed as the child moves from one stage to the next. 

The Stages of Cognitive Development

Jean Piaget divides the stages of cognitive development in the following categories-

(1) The period of sensorimotor adaptation (since birth to 2 years).

The period from birth to two years is marked by an extraordinary development of mind. The infant starts from reflex domination and reaches the stage of sensorimotor schemes in a means to end relationship. The development of this period is very important for future life.

The intellectual development at this age is marked by four fundamental characteristics: (a) Object concept formation, (b) Coordinated space, (c) Objectified causality, and (d) Objectification of time.

The objects exist in the psychological world of an adult irrespective of their physical presence before the adult but in the world of the child they only exist when they are physically present and child looks at them, grasps them and acts with them.

2) The development of symbolic and preconceptual thought (2 to 4 years) 

At the end of sensorimotor period, the child starts dealing with the world by means of ideational representations. By imitation and other forms of behaviour, he demonstrates that he is capable of extending his world beyond here and now. These actions of the child indicate the use of symbols. By the age of 4 years the child develops way of representing the environment in the absence of perceptual cues and will build a set of symbolic schemes.

(3) The period of intuitive thought (4 to 8 years)

At this stage, the child is able to use concepts as stable generalization of his past and present experiences. His reasoning is not logical and is based on intuition rather than on systematic logic. The intuitive thought of the child is mainly concerned with stages or static configurations and neglects transformation. The child talks about this or that momentary static conditions but he cannot adequately link a whole set of successive conditions into an integrated totality by taking into account the transformations which unify them and render them logically coherent.

(4) The period of concrete operations (8 to 12 years) 

Concrete operation means that stage of cognitive development when the child is able to direct his attention away from the static conditions and can focus on the whole set of successive changes that occur in the process of transformation. At this stage the child can reason well. Transformation could return to its starting point. Piaget has given a long list of operations which make possible the handling of numbers in various relations to each other, the arrangement of objects into classes and sub classes and the ordering of objects according to one or more attributes. He has coined a term 'grouping' to describe a set of operations.

(5) The period of formal operations (from 12 years to adolescence) 

At this stage the child's thought process becomes quite systematic and reasonably well-integrated. These qualities of the child's thought process are evident when events are present. Reality guides his contemplation of possibility. He starts a form of hypothetico-deductive reasoning. The use of formal operations is what is called the con- trolling aspects of comprehending.

The child at this stage in his formal thinking can free himself of the here and now in a lawful and systematic way. His wisdom. lies in the masterful administration of the unforeseen. When an adolescent is faced with a problem, he uses formal operations to identify the variables that seem relevant to the solutions and then considers all the possible combinations of these variables.

The hallmark of formal operations period is the development of the ability to think in symbolic terms and comprehend content meaning- fully without requiring physical objects or even visual or other imagery based on past experience with such objects. Formal operations are the logical and mathematical concepts which are used in advanced conceptualization and reasoning etc. that is difficult to represent concretely

Principles of Teaching English

Principles of Teaching English

"A mother tongue is caught not taught a foreign language is taught to be caught."

Mother Tongue is learnt by imitation. Mother Tongue is caught but foreign language is taught to be caught.

In India English is taught both as second language and as a foreign language. The term 'second language' is used because it has become a lingua franca between speakers of widely diverse languages. By English as a "foreign language' is meant that English is taught as a school-subject or on an adult level solely for giving students a foreign language competence. For both, it is essential for English teacher to teach in such a manner that desired goals can be achieved.

There are different approaches for the teaching and learning process of language such a psychological, linguistic and pedagogical principles. These principles of learning a language are based upon keen observation and research and experimentation. These principles are very helpful for the English teachers to raise the standard of English language. Foreign language teachers must keep in mind the following principles to achieve effectiveness in their teaching

1. Principles of Motivation, Interest and Variety

Motivation is the core of learning. It is a psychological process. Motivation, interest and variety are interrelated terms. There is no learning without interest and there is no interest without motivation and there is no motivation without varieties of different physical and mental activities A student can himself learn the language if he is motivated by the teacher to learn the language. If a child is to learn, he must be motivated, There may be two types of motivation

(i) Internal Motivation, (ii) External Motivation.

The internal motivation is related to the internal nature of the individual emotions. Child's own ambitions and desires motivate him. But sometimes, the learner is not internally motivated, there would be the need of extrinsic or external motivation for the learner to achieve the particular objectives of English teaching. External motivation is developed and created by the English teacher in the learner.

The purpose of motivation is to create a zeal to learn something new in language.  Motivation involves need, desire and interest to react. When desire to earn money and desire to learn language bring the response and reaction in individual, motivation takes place. The process goes like this: Internal desire to express ideas → motivation to learn language → learning the mother-tongue. 

2. The Principal of Naturalness

Man has a natural tendency to learn language for self-expression, for communication and, for information. The mother tongue is always learnt easily because there is a natural environment for learning mother tongue. The mother-tongue is spoken in the environment created by family and neighbourhood. From the very beginning the child listens to his parents, brothers, sisters, friends talking in that language. He rises with that language and sleeps with that language. In this way, a natural environment for mother-tongue learning is created around him. He later enlarges his sphere of activity, consequently enlarging the scope and depth of his language. But this is not true with foreign language. The child encounters this language all of a sudden in one of his classes and only for four or six period in a week. Therefore, it becomes difficult for him to learn the language. 

3. The Principle of Exposure 

When the child is provided a conductive and proper environment require for speaking the language when he is exposed to the environment where his mother tongue is spoken and written, he the mother. tongue more rapidly. He finds language exposure at home, school and society. The habits of listening, speaking, reading and writing all the constant practice and exposure which is possible only in a conductive language environment. The mother tongue is spoken in the language environment created by the family, school, neighbourhood and society. In the beginning, the child learns his language from his mother, father, brother, sisters and friends of his age. 

4. The Principle of Habit-Formation

Language learning is a skill which need constant practice and usage language is the instrument of all subjects. So it should be automatic i.e. a habit. Habit is the second nature of man which makes the speech natural

It is much easier for a child to learn his mother-tongue while at home and picks up a working vocabulary rather fast. He specially picks up those words which help him in his day-to-day life. It entails a great deal of practice on his part to understand these structures. Wherever he goes, he finds people speaking the same language, hence he sort of automatically gets into it. Even the learning of a mother-tongue is as much a habit as learning English.  Habit formation includes four types of habits:

(i) Habit of listening. 

(ii) Habit of speaking.

(iii) Habit of writing. According to Palmer, "Language learning is essentially a habit forming process, a process during which we acquire new habits."

Apart from the habits of four skills of language the following habits should be formulated in the students by our English teachers

(i) Habit of Imitating. 

(ii) Habit of Repeating.

(iii) Habit of Spelling.

(iv) Habit of correct use of language.

(v) Habit of correct pronunciation.

(vi) Habit of consulting dictionary. 

(vii) Habit of going of library.

(viii) Habit of reading of newspapers, journals, magazines and story books.

5. The Principle of Using Mother-Tongue

Mother-tongue may be helpful in teaching foreign language. As Robert Paul says in his book "Understanding English"-"When we learn first language, we face the universe directly and learn to clothe it with speech. When we learn a second language we tend to filter the universe through the language already known." Some of the linguists are not in favour of this thinking. They think that mother-tongue create a negative role in teaching a foreign language. But researches establish this fact that the role of mother-tongue facilitate the teaching foreign language. P. Gurrey points out, "The teaching of mother-tongue and teaching of foreign language can support and assist each other." 

(6) The Principles of Learning by Doing

This principle emphasises on acquiring skill by doing. For a foreign language acqui sition written work, pronunciation, reading, spelling writing, hearing P are essential activities. Students should be given a good practice of t these.

(7) The Principle of Multiple Line of Approach

According to th R. N. Safaya', "The term-multiple line implies that one is to proceed P simultaneously from many different points towards the one and the $ same end." So, the teacher should adopt many approaches judicio usly and rationally selected to reach the goal." The different appro aches which can be used are illustrated here:-

(8) The Principle of Accuracy and Correctness 

Accuracy implies to the use of right or exact words. It means that words should be used which impart meaning for contexts. For this the following are imperative :

(a) The selection of words should be right,

(b) Use of words should be economical,

(c) Expression should be impressive.

Correctness stands for accuracy of pronunciation, intonation, spelling, structures and articulation. From the very beginning, the teacher should be both accurate and correct.

(9) The Principle of Concreteness

This principle is based on the assumption that knowledge can be stored in mind permanently. if it is gained through practical experience. A child can remember lotus' more if he has seen the flower himself than when he has not. The teacher, therefore, should begin with concrete things. As P. C. Wren says, "the first words of English should be names of things and those things should be there before him as they are named...... He must say 'book', 'desk' etc. and point to the things he names." For this, the teacher can use either classroom material or should bring with him handly material. Besides nouns, others, e.g. adjectives, pronouns, prepositions, conjunctions, verbs, adverbs should also be taught keeping in mind this principle.

(10) The Principle of Correlation with Life

While teaching, the subject-matter should be related to life, customs, traditions, pecularities and characteristics of the particular society to which the students belong. In this way, teaching can be more meaningful and learning can be transferred to real life situations.

(11) The Principle of Language Aptitude 

Specialists of language like Carroll and Spoont are of the view that, for learning a language, language aptitude is needed. There are some main com ponents of language aptitude which should be developed in students. These components are:

(i) Phonetic Coding-ability to code sound in such a way that it can be remembered.

(ii) Grammar-ability to handle grammar.

(iii) Rote memorization. 

(iv) Inferring linguistic rules, patterns, etc.

These are the various principles of foreign language teaching. If the teacher wants his teaching to be fruitful, if he wants the rate of learning to be accelerated, he must follow these principles in teaching.

(12) The Principle of Aural-Oral Approach 

The child learns speaking his mother tongue before reading and writing it. The beginners should be taught with speech lesson in which words and small sentences are to be heard and listened. Oral practice is the quickest way of learning a language. Oral approach is based on the psychological foundations which must be applied in the beginning stage. 

The following are the advantages of oral speech :-

(i) Promotes fluency of speech

(ii) Lays the foundation of correct Pronunciation

(iii) Sentence is the Unit of Speech the language

(iv) Mastering over functional grammar

(v) Strengthens listening and speaking skills

Linguistic Principles or Characteristics of a Language or General Principles of Foreign Language Teaching, Role and Functions of a Language

Utkarsh Education

 

Linguistic Principles 

or

 Characteristics of a Language

 or

 General Principles of Foreign Language Teaching

In India English is taught both as a second language and as a foreign language. The term 'second language' is used because it has become a lingua franca between speakers of widely diverse languages. It is essential for English teacher to teach in such a manner that desired goals can be achieved. Therefore, a sound knowledge of the principles of teaching English language is needed. Since, there principles are fruitful for all foreign language teaching. They are faptly called as general principles of foreign language teaching. These principles can also determine the nature and scope of language and so they can also be studied as the characteristics of language.

1. Language is learnt.

2. Language is a system.

3. Language is a system of systems. 

4. Language is vocal and verbal.

5. Symbols of language are arbitrary.

6. Language is unique.

7. Language is a means of communication.

8. Language is related to culture or language and society,

9. Language is ever changing.

10. Language has its own grammar.

11. Language has its sentence structures.

12. Language has some specific rules.

13. Language has its own vocabulary and terminology.

14. Language involves some actions (non-verbal signs and gesture). 

Role and Functions of a Language

Language plays an important role in human life. The hard fact is that human life has been made better by the use of a language. Language is a means of expression. It helps us in the process of communication. The human life would have been quite different. Language plays some important functions which are briefly explained as follows:

1. Expressive Functions: Every person has some feelings emotions, ideas and he/she wants to give an outlet in those experiences of life. By using a language, he is able to express his views. Thus language helps in the process of expression between the two individuals. Language develops mutual under standing. This activity of expressing oneself helps a lot in balancing the proper grown and development of the personality of an individual. Just giving an outlet to our pent-up feelings, emotions, ideas and thoughts, it helps an individual in a number of ways. By expressing himself in different ways, A person can become a good orator, a good poet and a writer. The way he/she can arouse the feelings of others, benefit others also.

2. Aesthetic Function: Language is a means to store cultural experiences in the form of literature and other written records for the posterity. There cultural experiences form the nexus of individual's realisation. It breaths life into our poets and dramatists. In the absence of language, such fine arts were not possible Language has its aesthetic aspect in other way also. Sometimes we have feelings or experiences of life, but we either do not express or are unable express due to one or other reason. Later those experiences are expressed by someone else who may be author or poet and then this expression gives us a lot of satisfaction. Certainly it helps in the proper growth and development of the individual.

3. Informative Functions: Language helps to an individual in giving information to others. Suppose a person has some important information in his mind and that he wants to pass on the others. It will be possible only if he is able to express himself and inform others. Only language helps in giving the information or message.

Sometimes, the teacher in the classroom situation plays the role of information given only. He will be able to do so only with the help of a language otherwise he fails to do his duty properly. Language has, thus, an informative function.

4. Directive Function: Language also helps in giving directions to others. Through a language any type of direction to proceed or not to proceed can be given to the police standing at crossing shows 'red light' to the traffic. It is not just communication of information. He is rather directing the whole traffic to stop all movement.

In the examination hall, the superintendent uses a language and gives directions to the candidates sitting there and draws the attention of all to follow certain rules and regulations. By using a language, he is able to give directions Thus, we find, that language has directive functions also.

5. Interactive Function: Language is not the one way communication. It has both way communication. The radio and television are the media of one way communication while telephone has both ways communication. In classroom teaching, interaction between teacher and students takes place with the help of verbal and non-verbal language. The question answer method is used to that interaction may occur in the classroom. Teaching is known as interactive process that is face-to-face encounters between teacher and students.

It is an important function of language. The interactive process is the means of development. The classroom interaction helps in the students' and teachers development. The seminars, conferences and group discussions are organised for interacting in group on certain issue or problem. The exchange of views and ideas are made through interaction.

6. Communicative Function: Language is the means or medium for sending informations, ideas, feelings to others. It provides expression to our thoughts feelings needs, opinions and other abstract things. It helps to communicate them to other persons in oral or written forms. Daily newspaper communicate events and development in written forms. The radio and television Prews items also communicate the news in speech form. Some code language is also used in the communicating message during war 

7. Evolutionary Function: The advancement of a country depends on its economic, social and technological development and the evolution of the country is governed by its national language. A rich language of a country contributes directly in the national development. English, being an international language. is also known as the window to the world. Its rich and advanced literature has contributed in the evolution of English society. The evolution of man and society is related to language geographical conditions have also influenced the language significantly, such as formation of letters, pronunciation or phonemes.

8. Function of Skill development: Teaching of English language also involves the development of some skills such as-Teaching of correct pronunciation, teaching of correct spellings of words, teaching of English grammar, idioms and figures of speech, teaching of metres of English poetry, teaching of Allumous to English mythology and introduction to the English literature. Thus English language helps to improve skill development among teachers.

9. Preservative Functions: Learning language is the God given gift or boon for human beings as man also uses language for inter-action and communication. During his life time; a man gains much knowledge and experience from daily life which can be preserved only in written form. Thus, acquired knowledge and experience and formed edifies of human knowledge which is available in written language.

The introduction of media and technology also have helped in preserving the ideas, views and artistic ability in original forms. The video recording, films, display in original language, speech pronunciation, style of language. We can enjoy the songs of poet and thoughts of great scholars even after their death. Thus, the language has the most important function in preserving the knowledge, ideas, feelings, views in original forms.

The Origin and Development of English Language, Main theories of Language

Utkarsh Education

 

Origin and Development of English Language

However, nothing can be said authentically about the origin of language, although there are several theories, which have been expanded in support of its origin, but these theories are based on speculation and surmises. It can be said that a language is recognized when it becomes a forceful medium of expression or communication of feelings as well as emotions. If we have a glance over the development of English language, we notice a gradual development and enrichment by the valuable contribution and impact of other languages and their literature.

English language did not occupy reputed place in antiguity rather it was neglected and looked down by the then upper class society. As a matter of fact, English was spoken by rustics and lower class of society. When Germanic and Franco Latin literature was furnished, English also became rich language and literature.

Firstly Anglo Saxon literature contributed English and secondly, the literature imparted from France by the Normans, helped in its development. Anglo Saxon literature was cultivated by the Teutonic tribes, which invaded Britain at the end of the Vth century. This literature in the outcome of the work of clerks during the period from VIIth to XIth century. In the Latin literature of the age, some renowned persons like Aldhelm (640-709), Prede (673-735), Mark of Jarrow and Aluim (735-804) wrote in Latin and composed some English views and songs in English. First creation of the erudities of language is poetry. The most pre-dominant and notable characteristics of the Germanic language, spoken by Anglo Saxon are consonants. But this is not the strict rule to use this metre, but the alteration may be formed by vowels also.

Further old English possessed the facility of forming compound words. These compound words display the original sense by their elements which form then; e.g.. geal-adi (gall disease) is jaundice. Lic-song (the corpse song) is a dirgelie tun (the town of corpses) is the cemetery etc. Then, the use of compound words was common to both poetry and prose, but independent English language and its literature has yet not come in existence. Poeta used such words for ornamen to bring emphasis or effect.

Thus, up to 9th century. English poetry or prose had no identification literature. Towards the middle of Xth century a remarkable advancement w made in English culture by the re-establishment of the Benedictive Monaster One of the pupils of this school, at Winchester Alfric cultivated more refine prose, which was more musical and poetic. So, on the whole, Anglo Saxon pro is much nearer to modern prose.

Gradually the Anglo Saxon vocabulary was being transferred by the disappearance of its poetic terms and new words went on making their place in the language. These new words were supplied by the Normans. Besides the Anglo Saxon words became modified in form and pronunciation and change resulted in the form of shortened words. Thus, Anglo Saxon became gradually modified into modern English with its simple grammar.

Thus, we can see, that the history of English language is usually described as covering three stages-Old English up to about 1150, Middle English upto about 1500 and then Modern English. The gap between modern language and the old English is now so great that old English has to be studied as if it were foreign language. 

1. Old English (Early Period of English Language) upto about 1150

The origin of English can be traced further back, beyond the dialects of the early Germanic settlers, to the West Germanic languages spoken by tribes in North-West Germany around the beginning of the Christian Era. These Wes German languages are in turn part of a wider Germanic group, which include the Scandinavian languages. All of these form a branch of the Indo-European family of languages, spoken from Northern India to the Atlantic coast of Europe. Due to kinship among all these languages Persian, Hindi, Spanish, Galtic and English alike and others lies in the many words (in different forms) that they have in common, e.g., we find words equivalent to snow, birch, wolf, honey ant beech. The only difference between Germanic languages from the other Indo European tongues is that verbs can be grouped into two classes, called 'weak and 'strong, according to the form of their past tense.

The various Anglo Saxon tribes in England has different dialects. Of these, West Saxon is the most important today. The Latin alphabet was widely all over Europe. The core of our modern English vocabulary, is of old English stock. There was difference in the grammar and inflections, the ending of words show their relationships with other words. Old English showed these relationships by of inflections that indicated grammatical classifications. Thus, old English was by no means as adjudged from the modern standards. As relationships between words were indicated by inflection, there was no crucial need for related words to be positioned next to each other. This complex use of inflections was breaking down throughout the old English period but it was so well established that the changes began to appear late in the written English. On account of Scandinavian influence on spoken English between IXth and XIth centuries. Many Scandinavian words come readily into English and contributed to the dialects of Northern and Eastern England eg.. cracked, bath, skill, husband and Thursday. 

2. Middle English Period (1150 to 1500)

English came back into general literary use in the 14th Century, by this time, the writing habits that had been ingrained in old English were quite forgotten. Writers now adopted many French conventions, using qu-in words like queen or queak, instead of the old English. The French symbols-ou- and -ow-were used to represent the /-00 sound that in old English had been written -U (hus "a house"). Changes in pronunciation were already taking place in. Later old English, continued rapidly and new spellings were adopted to represent the new sounds, e.g., old English spellings such as stan and ham (for a stone' and 'a home') now became stone and home. Besides this, French words too began to appear in English writing. Geoffrey Chaucer, a fairly representative user of Middle English, used a high proportion of French words in his poetry. He compared a long descriptive poem, "The Canterbury Tales'. In this poem he chose thirty pilgrims and drew a portrait of each one. These portraits (prologue) display his skill of human and irony and so he is known as Father of English poetry. By about 1400, the year of Chaucer's death, more than half of English vocabulary consisted of French imports. Thus, the most obvious change in middle English was the loss of old inflected endings. Chaucer's English is much more intelligible to the modern readers.

3. Modern English Period (Early Renaissance and Afterwards)

Between Old and Middle English period, grammatical and vocabulary changes were most dramatic but between Middle and Modern English, it was pronunciation changes, that marked the transition most strongly. After Chaucer's time, the Vowel sounds, particularly long Vowels underwent a process of modification and it has become known as the Great Vowel shift. English language gradually but slowly achieved its proper place during 15th and 16th centuries. English became the language of cultured society and covered for flung area on the globe. Thomas Wyatt (1503) and Surrey (1517) are the most important names who served English Literature. The literary works of Philip Sidney (1554) appeared between the years 1518 and 1582, but were published after his death. Edmund Spender felt that the purity of the language could be preserved only by reviving old words and using words from dialect. Thus, Renaissance or Elizabethan period was full of great poets, dramatists and essayists. This period is rich in all its manifestation. Shakespeare, Spencer and Bacon are the shining stars of this period. English achieved its highest position and glory during this period.

The major movement in language was the attempt to establish rules of correctness in the 17th Century, now the first time, dictionaries defining the meanings of words were published and Dr. Samuel Johnson in 1755 contributed in this field. Throughout the 19th and 20th Centuries, the debates about standards of correctness and acceptability to be debated and during the first of the 20th Century under the influence of radio, there was a strong move towards a prescribed standard.

THE ORIGIN OF LANGUAGE

Diverse views are available with regarding the origin of formal language. Some points are as follows:

(1) The 'Divine Gift' Theory: 

According to Indian philosophy, language is the divine gift of God. The Vedas are eternal and therefore, words are eternal since they are gift of God. In Bhagvad Gita Lord Krishna says, "I am the sacred 'OM' in all the Vedas." According to this view 'OM' which is a combination of A+U+M is the root of all the sounds and it represents the union of the three Gods-Brahma, Vishnu and Mahesh.

(2) Onomatopoeic Theory: 

Onomatopoeia is a world which resembles the object associated with it. According to this view, the first form of language resembled the cries of animals full of joy, pain or terror and the chattering of leaves and branches of and noises of the served as source of inspiration to the primitive man to express himself through speech. He imitated the voices of animals and birds. We can call it imitation theory also. This is also known as "bow-wow' theory which assumed that some birds and animals were named after the sounds that they produced. According to Thompson" "This mimicry of animals was generalized to other objects and events in nature e.g., the 'rumbling' of thunder, the 'scraping' of metal on rock, and the 'gurgling' of water.

In due course of time man invented other sounds for naming other objects in his sorroundings.

(3) The 'Ding-Dong' Theory: 

This theory assumes that there is an inherent quality in certain objects to force the man to elicit certain sounds resembling the sounds of those objects. For example the sound 'ding-dong' is associated with the ringing of the bell. According to this theory sound and sense are closely related and everything when struck gives a peculiar sound and a corresponding sense to the listener.

(4) The 'Pooh-Pooh' Theory: 

This theory holds that the interjections or exclamations of man during his different emotional states e.g., pleasure, pain, anger and surprise, formed the basis for the origin of language.

(5) The 'Babble-Luck' Theory: 

This theory assumes that language is the result of prattling of man while he worked. It was through chance factors that babbling or murmuring of man became to be associated with particular objects and it resulted in the origin of a private language for the personal use of a par ticular man. In due course of time, these private worlds became common for use to all.

(6) The 'Tongue-Tied' Theory: 

According to this thoery, the tongue of a human being is co-ordinated with the body by subtle bonds of imitative relationship. What our body organs do, are readily picked up by our speech organ-the tongue. In other words, our actions of the hands, arms, legs and other organs of the body are tongue-tied.

(7) The Yo- He- Ho - Theory

The propounder of this theory was Novie. This theory assumes that due to muscular exertion, a person produces a sound which gives relief to his system. During this process, the vocal chord vibrates in =different ways. For example, in a game of 'tug of war', the players produce sounds like 'hayi-sha' or an athlete running fast breathes short to regain his breath. Therefore, such sounds are produced to balance the body mechanism.

(8) The Sing Song Theory

This theory was propounded by Prof. Hedson. According to this theory, the source of speech is not gloomy seriousness but mere play and youthful hilarity. As such, the origin of speech can be traced to merry-making, sports, hunting, singing etc.

(9) The Ta-Ta Theory

Louis H. Gray was the originator of this theory. He explained that certain sound produces by the vocal chord is associated unconsciously with a particular kind of gesture. For example, child imitates his parents to produce sound like 'tata' while moving his hand. This action is performed to express his emotion of pleasure when he goes out of the house.

(10) The Contact Theory

This theory states that human beings utter sounds to fulfill his basic needs like hunger, thirst, sex, etc. In many ways, he can contact for communication with his fellow members. For example, when a child is born, the first sound he produces is of discomfort i.e. he cries. This draws the attention of mother or attendant to fulfill his needs. This in turn provides him the security of his mother's womb. Later, he starts associating certain sound to particular activity. 

Conclusion:

Modern theorists hold the view that speech is simply not the manipulation of physical organs. Therefore, it is important to learn about the psychological development of early man. Basically, language evolved with the human need to communicate. It developed in a social situation to convey message among the members of his group.