Principles of Teaching English

Principles of Teaching English

"A mother tongue is caught not taught a foreign language is taught to be caught."

Mother Tongue is learnt by imitation. Mother Tongue is caught but foreign language is taught to be caught.

In India English is taught both as second language and as a foreign language. The term 'second language' is used because it has become a lingua franca between speakers of widely diverse languages. By English as a "foreign language' is meant that English is taught as a school-subject or on an adult level solely for giving students a foreign language competence. For both, it is essential for English teacher to teach in such a manner that desired goals can be achieved.

There are different approaches for the teaching and learning process of language such a psychological, linguistic and pedagogical principles. These principles of learning a language are based upon keen observation and research and experimentation. These principles are very helpful for the English teachers to raise the standard of English language. Foreign language teachers must keep in mind the following principles to achieve effectiveness in their teaching

1. Principles of Motivation, Interest and Variety

Motivation is the core of learning. It is a psychological process. Motivation, interest and variety are interrelated terms. There is no learning without interest and there is no interest without motivation and there is no motivation without varieties of different physical and mental activities A student can himself learn the language if he is motivated by the teacher to learn the language. If a child is to learn, he must be motivated, There may be two types of motivation

(i) Internal Motivation, (ii) External Motivation.

The internal motivation is related to the internal nature of the individual emotions. Child's own ambitions and desires motivate him. But sometimes, the learner is not internally motivated, there would be the need of extrinsic or external motivation for the learner to achieve the particular objectives of English teaching. External motivation is developed and created by the English teacher in the learner.

The purpose of motivation is to create a zeal to learn something new in language.  Motivation involves need, desire and interest to react. When desire to earn money and desire to learn language bring the response and reaction in individual, motivation takes place. The process goes like this: Internal desire to express ideas → motivation to learn language → learning the mother-tongue. 

2. The Principal of Naturalness

Man has a natural tendency to learn language for self-expression, for communication and, for information. The mother tongue is always learnt easily because there is a natural environment for learning mother tongue. The mother-tongue is spoken in the environment created by family and neighbourhood. From the very beginning the child listens to his parents, brothers, sisters, friends talking in that language. He rises with that language and sleeps with that language. In this way, a natural environment for mother-tongue learning is created around him. He later enlarges his sphere of activity, consequently enlarging the scope and depth of his language. But this is not true with foreign language. The child encounters this language all of a sudden in one of his classes and only for four or six period in a week. Therefore, it becomes difficult for him to learn the language. 

3. The Principle of Exposure 

When the child is provided a conductive and proper environment require for speaking the language when he is exposed to the environment where his mother tongue is spoken and written, he the mother. tongue more rapidly. He finds language exposure at home, school and society. The habits of listening, speaking, reading and writing all the constant practice and exposure which is possible only in a conductive language environment. The mother tongue is spoken in the language environment created by the family, school, neighbourhood and society. In the beginning, the child learns his language from his mother, father, brother, sisters and friends of his age. 

4. The Principle of Habit-Formation

Language learning is a skill which need constant practice and usage language is the instrument of all subjects. So it should be automatic i.e. a habit. Habit is the second nature of man which makes the speech natural

It is much easier for a child to learn his mother-tongue while at home and picks up a working vocabulary rather fast. He specially picks up those words which help him in his day-to-day life. It entails a great deal of practice on his part to understand these structures. Wherever he goes, he finds people speaking the same language, hence he sort of automatically gets into it. Even the learning of a mother-tongue is as much a habit as learning English.  Habit formation includes four types of habits:

(i) Habit of listening. 

(ii) Habit of speaking.

(iii) Habit of writing. According to Palmer, "Language learning is essentially a habit forming process, a process during which we acquire new habits."

Apart from the habits of four skills of language the following habits should be formulated in the students by our English teachers

(i) Habit of Imitating. 

(ii) Habit of Repeating.

(iii) Habit of Spelling.

(iv) Habit of correct use of language.

(v) Habit of correct pronunciation.

(vi) Habit of consulting dictionary. 

(vii) Habit of going of library.

(viii) Habit of reading of newspapers, journals, magazines and story books.

5. The Principle of Using Mother-Tongue

Mother-tongue may be helpful in teaching foreign language. As Robert Paul says in his book "Understanding English"-"When we learn first language, we face the universe directly and learn to clothe it with speech. When we learn a second language we tend to filter the universe through the language already known." Some of the linguists are not in favour of this thinking. They think that mother-tongue create a negative role in teaching a foreign language. But researches establish this fact that the role of mother-tongue facilitate the teaching foreign language. P. Gurrey points out, "The teaching of mother-tongue and teaching of foreign language can support and assist each other." 

(6) The Principles of Learning by Doing

This principle emphasises on acquiring skill by doing. For a foreign language acqui sition written work, pronunciation, reading, spelling writing, hearing P are essential activities. Students should be given a good practice of t these.

(7) The Principle of Multiple Line of Approach

According to th R. N. Safaya', "The term-multiple line implies that one is to proceed P simultaneously from many different points towards the one and the $ same end." So, the teacher should adopt many approaches judicio usly and rationally selected to reach the goal." The different appro aches which can be used are illustrated here:-

(8) The Principle of Accuracy and Correctness 

Accuracy implies to the use of right or exact words. It means that words should be used which impart meaning for contexts. For this the following are imperative :

(a) The selection of words should be right,

(b) Use of words should be economical,

(c) Expression should be impressive.

Correctness stands for accuracy of pronunciation, intonation, spelling, structures and articulation. From the very beginning, the teacher should be both accurate and correct.

(9) The Principle of Concreteness

This principle is based on the assumption that knowledge can be stored in mind permanently. if it is gained through practical experience. A child can remember lotus' more if he has seen the flower himself than when he has not. The teacher, therefore, should begin with concrete things. As P. C. Wren says, "the first words of English should be names of things and those things should be there before him as they are named...... He must say 'book', 'desk' etc. and point to the things he names." For this, the teacher can use either classroom material or should bring with him handly material. Besides nouns, others, e.g. adjectives, pronouns, prepositions, conjunctions, verbs, adverbs should also be taught keeping in mind this principle.

(10) The Principle of Correlation with Life

While teaching, the subject-matter should be related to life, customs, traditions, pecularities and characteristics of the particular society to which the students belong. In this way, teaching can be more meaningful and learning can be transferred to real life situations.

(11) The Principle of Language Aptitude 

Specialists of language like Carroll and Spoont are of the view that, for learning a language, language aptitude is needed. There are some main com ponents of language aptitude which should be developed in students. These components are:

(i) Phonetic Coding-ability to code sound in such a way that it can be remembered.

(ii) Grammar-ability to handle grammar.

(iii) Rote memorization. 

(iv) Inferring linguistic rules, patterns, etc.

These are the various principles of foreign language teaching. If the teacher wants his teaching to be fruitful, if he wants the rate of learning to be accelerated, he must follow these principles in teaching.

(12) The Principle of Aural-Oral Approach 

The child learns speaking his mother tongue before reading and writing it. The beginners should be taught with speech lesson in which words and small sentences are to be heard and listened. Oral practice is the quickest way of learning a language. Oral approach is based on the psychological foundations which must be applied in the beginning stage. 

The following are the advantages of oral speech :-

(i) Promotes fluency of speech

(ii) Lays the foundation of correct Pronunciation

(iii) Sentence is the Unit of Speech the language

(iv) Mastering over functional grammar

(v) Strengthens listening and speaking skills

Linguistic Principles or Characteristics of a Language or General Principles of Foreign Language Teaching, Role and Functions of a Language

Utkarsh Education

 

Linguistic Principles 

or

 Characteristics of a Language

 or

 General Principles of Foreign Language Teaching

In India English is taught both as a second language and as a foreign language. The term 'second language' is used because it has become a lingua franca between speakers of widely diverse languages. It is essential for English teacher to teach in such a manner that desired goals can be achieved. Therefore, a sound knowledge of the principles of teaching English language is needed. Since, there principles are fruitful for all foreign language teaching. They are faptly called as general principles of foreign language teaching. These principles can also determine the nature and scope of language and so they can also be studied as the characteristics of language.

1. Language is learnt.

2. Language is a system.

3. Language is a system of systems. 

4. Language is vocal and verbal.

5. Symbols of language are arbitrary.

6. Language is unique.

7. Language is a means of communication.

8. Language is related to culture or language and society,

9. Language is ever changing.

10. Language has its own grammar.

11. Language has its sentence structures.

12. Language has some specific rules.

13. Language has its own vocabulary and terminology.

14. Language involves some actions (non-verbal signs and gesture). 

Role and Functions of a Language

Language plays an important role in human life. The hard fact is that human life has been made better by the use of a language. Language is a means of expression. It helps us in the process of communication. The human life would have been quite different. Language plays some important functions which are briefly explained as follows:

1. Expressive Functions: Every person has some feelings emotions, ideas and he/she wants to give an outlet in those experiences of life. By using a language, he is able to express his views. Thus language helps in the process of expression between the two individuals. Language develops mutual under standing. This activity of expressing oneself helps a lot in balancing the proper grown and development of the personality of an individual. Just giving an outlet to our pent-up feelings, emotions, ideas and thoughts, it helps an individual in a number of ways. By expressing himself in different ways, A person can become a good orator, a good poet and a writer. The way he/she can arouse the feelings of others, benefit others also.

2. Aesthetic Function: Language is a means to store cultural experiences in the form of literature and other written records for the posterity. There cultural experiences form the nexus of individual's realisation. It breaths life into our poets and dramatists. In the absence of language, such fine arts were not possible Language has its aesthetic aspect in other way also. Sometimes we have feelings or experiences of life, but we either do not express or are unable express due to one or other reason. Later those experiences are expressed by someone else who may be author or poet and then this expression gives us a lot of satisfaction. Certainly it helps in the proper growth and development of the individual.

3. Informative Functions: Language helps to an individual in giving information to others. Suppose a person has some important information in his mind and that he wants to pass on the others. It will be possible only if he is able to express himself and inform others. Only language helps in giving the information or message.

Sometimes, the teacher in the classroom situation plays the role of information given only. He will be able to do so only with the help of a language otherwise he fails to do his duty properly. Language has, thus, an informative function.

4. Directive Function: Language also helps in giving directions to others. Through a language any type of direction to proceed or not to proceed can be given to the police standing at crossing shows 'red light' to the traffic. It is not just communication of information. He is rather directing the whole traffic to stop all movement.

In the examination hall, the superintendent uses a language and gives directions to the candidates sitting there and draws the attention of all to follow certain rules and regulations. By using a language, he is able to give directions Thus, we find, that language has directive functions also.

5. Interactive Function: Language is not the one way communication. It has both way communication. The radio and television are the media of one way communication while telephone has both ways communication. In classroom teaching, interaction between teacher and students takes place with the help of verbal and non-verbal language. The question answer method is used to that interaction may occur in the classroom. Teaching is known as interactive process that is face-to-face encounters between teacher and students.

It is an important function of language. The interactive process is the means of development. The classroom interaction helps in the students' and teachers development. The seminars, conferences and group discussions are organised for interacting in group on certain issue or problem. The exchange of views and ideas are made through interaction.

6. Communicative Function: Language is the means or medium for sending informations, ideas, feelings to others. It provides expression to our thoughts feelings needs, opinions and other abstract things. It helps to communicate them to other persons in oral or written forms. Daily newspaper communicate events and development in written forms. The radio and television Prews items also communicate the news in speech form. Some code language is also used in the communicating message during war 

7. Evolutionary Function: The advancement of a country depends on its economic, social and technological development and the evolution of the country is governed by its national language. A rich language of a country contributes directly in the national development. English, being an international language. is also known as the window to the world. Its rich and advanced literature has contributed in the evolution of English society. The evolution of man and society is related to language geographical conditions have also influenced the language significantly, such as formation of letters, pronunciation or phonemes.

8. Function of Skill development: Teaching of English language also involves the development of some skills such as-Teaching of correct pronunciation, teaching of correct spellings of words, teaching of English grammar, idioms and figures of speech, teaching of metres of English poetry, teaching of Allumous to English mythology and introduction to the English literature. Thus English language helps to improve skill development among teachers.

9. Preservative Functions: Learning language is the God given gift or boon for human beings as man also uses language for inter-action and communication. During his life time; a man gains much knowledge and experience from daily life which can be preserved only in written form. Thus, acquired knowledge and experience and formed edifies of human knowledge which is available in written language.

The introduction of media and technology also have helped in preserving the ideas, views and artistic ability in original forms. The video recording, films, display in original language, speech pronunciation, style of language. We can enjoy the songs of poet and thoughts of great scholars even after their death. Thus, the language has the most important function in preserving the knowledge, ideas, feelings, views in original forms.

The Origin and Development of English Language, Main theories of Language

Utkarsh Education

 

Origin and Development of English Language

However, nothing can be said authentically about the origin of language, although there are several theories, which have been expanded in support of its origin, but these theories are based on speculation and surmises. It can be said that a language is recognized when it becomes a forceful medium of expression or communication of feelings as well as emotions. If we have a glance over the development of English language, we notice a gradual development and enrichment by the valuable contribution and impact of other languages and their literature.

English language did not occupy reputed place in antiguity rather it was neglected and looked down by the then upper class society. As a matter of fact, English was spoken by rustics and lower class of society. When Germanic and Franco Latin literature was furnished, English also became rich language and literature.

Firstly Anglo Saxon literature contributed English and secondly, the literature imparted from France by the Normans, helped in its development. Anglo Saxon literature was cultivated by the Teutonic tribes, which invaded Britain at the end of the Vth century. This literature in the outcome of the work of clerks during the period from VIIth to XIth century. In the Latin literature of the age, some renowned persons like Aldhelm (640-709), Prede (673-735), Mark of Jarrow and Aluim (735-804) wrote in Latin and composed some English views and songs in English. First creation of the erudities of language is poetry. The most pre-dominant and notable characteristics of the Germanic language, spoken by Anglo Saxon are consonants. But this is not the strict rule to use this metre, but the alteration may be formed by vowels also.

Further old English possessed the facility of forming compound words. These compound words display the original sense by their elements which form then; e.g.. geal-adi (gall disease) is jaundice. Lic-song (the corpse song) is a dirgelie tun (the town of corpses) is the cemetery etc. Then, the use of compound words was common to both poetry and prose, but independent English language and its literature has yet not come in existence. Poeta used such words for ornamen to bring emphasis or effect.

Thus, up to 9th century. English poetry or prose had no identification literature. Towards the middle of Xth century a remarkable advancement w made in English culture by the re-establishment of the Benedictive Monaster One of the pupils of this school, at Winchester Alfric cultivated more refine prose, which was more musical and poetic. So, on the whole, Anglo Saxon pro is much nearer to modern prose.

Gradually the Anglo Saxon vocabulary was being transferred by the disappearance of its poetic terms and new words went on making their place in the language. These new words were supplied by the Normans. Besides the Anglo Saxon words became modified in form and pronunciation and change resulted in the form of shortened words. Thus, Anglo Saxon became gradually modified into modern English with its simple grammar.

Thus, we can see, that the history of English language is usually described as covering three stages-Old English up to about 1150, Middle English upto about 1500 and then Modern English. The gap between modern language and the old English is now so great that old English has to be studied as if it were foreign language. 

1. Old English (Early Period of English Language) upto about 1150

The origin of English can be traced further back, beyond the dialects of the early Germanic settlers, to the West Germanic languages spoken by tribes in North-West Germany around the beginning of the Christian Era. These Wes German languages are in turn part of a wider Germanic group, which include the Scandinavian languages. All of these form a branch of the Indo-European family of languages, spoken from Northern India to the Atlantic coast of Europe. Due to kinship among all these languages Persian, Hindi, Spanish, Galtic and English alike and others lies in the many words (in different forms) that they have in common, e.g., we find words equivalent to snow, birch, wolf, honey ant beech. The only difference between Germanic languages from the other Indo European tongues is that verbs can be grouped into two classes, called 'weak and 'strong, according to the form of their past tense.

The various Anglo Saxon tribes in England has different dialects. Of these, West Saxon is the most important today. The Latin alphabet was widely all over Europe. The core of our modern English vocabulary, is of old English stock. There was difference in the grammar and inflections, the ending of words show their relationships with other words. Old English showed these relationships by of inflections that indicated grammatical classifications. Thus, old English was by no means as adjudged from the modern standards. As relationships between words were indicated by inflection, there was no crucial need for related words to be positioned next to each other. This complex use of inflections was breaking down throughout the old English period but it was so well established that the changes began to appear late in the written English. On account of Scandinavian influence on spoken English between IXth and XIth centuries. Many Scandinavian words come readily into English and contributed to the dialects of Northern and Eastern England eg.. cracked, bath, skill, husband and Thursday. 

2. Middle English Period (1150 to 1500)

English came back into general literary use in the 14th Century, by this time, the writing habits that had been ingrained in old English were quite forgotten. Writers now adopted many French conventions, using qu-in words like queen or queak, instead of the old English. The French symbols-ou- and -ow-were used to represent the /-00 sound that in old English had been written -U (hus "a house"). Changes in pronunciation were already taking place in. Later old English, continued rapidly and new spellings were adopted to represent the new sounds, e.g., old English spellings such as stan and ham (for a stone' and 'a home') now became stone and home. Besides this, French words too began to appear in English writing. Geoffrey Chaucer, a fairly representative user of Middle English, used a high proportion of French words in his poetry. He compared a long descriptive poem, "The Canterbury Tales'. In this poem he chose thirty pilgrims and drew a portrait of each one. These portraits (prologue) display his skill of human and irony and so he is known as Father of English poetry. By about 1400, the year of Chaucer's death, more than half of English vocabulary consisted of French imports. Thus, the most obvious change in middle English was the loss of old inflected endings. Chaucer's English is much more intelligible to the modern readers.

3. Modern English Period (Early Renaissance and Afterwards)

Between Old and Middle English period, grammatical and vocabulary changes were most dramatic but between Middle and Modern English, it was pronunciation changes, that marked the transition most strongly. After Chaucer's time, the Vowel sounds, particularly long Vowels underwent a process of modification and it has become known as the Great Vowel shift. English language gradually but slowly achieved its proper place during 15th and 16th centuries. English became the language of cultured society and covered for flung area on the globe. Thomas Wyatt (1503) and Surrey (1517) are the most important names who served English Literature. The literary works of Philip Sidney (1554) appeared between the years 1518 and 1582, but were published after his death. Edmund Spender felt that the purity of the language could be preserved only by reviving old words and using words from dialect. Thus, Renaissance or Elizabethan period was full of great poets, dramatists and essayists. This period is rich in all its manifestation. Shakespeare, Spencer and Bacon are the shining stars of this period. English achieved its highest position and glory during this period.

The major movement in language was the attempt to establish rules of correctness in the 17th Century, now the first time, dictionaries defining the meanings of words were published and Dr. Samuel Johnson in 1755 contributed in this field. Throughout the 19th and 20th Centuries, the debates about standards of correctness and acceptability to be debated and during the first of the 20th Century under the influence of radio, there was a strong move towards a prescribed standard.

THE ORIGIN OF LANGUAGE

Diverse views are available with regarding the origin of formal language. Some points are as follows:

(1) The 'Divine Gift' Theory: 

According to Indian philosophy, language is the divine gift of God. The Vedas are eternal and therefore, words are eternal since they are gift of God. In Bhagvad Gita Lord Krishna says, "I am the sacred 'OM' in all the Vedas." According to this view 'OM' which is a combination of A+U+M is the root of all the sounds and it represents the union of the three Gods-Brahma, Vishnu and Mahesh.

(2) Onomatopoeic Theory: 

Onomatopoeia is a world which resembles the object associated with it. According to this view, the first form of language resembled the cries of animals full of joy, pain or terror and the chattering of leaves and branches of and noises of the served as source of inspiration to the primitive man to express himself through speech. He imitated the voices of animals and birds. We can call it imitation theory also. This is also known as "bow-wow' theory which assumed that some birds and animals were named after the sounds that they produced. According to Thompson" "This mimicry of animals was generalized to other objects and events in nature e.g., the 'rumbling' of thunder, the 'scraping' of metal on rock, and the 'gurgling' of water.

In due course of time man invented other sounds for naming other objects in his sorroundings.

(3) The 'Ding-Dong' Theory: 

This theory assumes that there is an inherent quality in certain objects to force the man to elicit certain sounds resembling the sounds of those objects. For example the sound 'ding-dong' is associated with the ringing of the bell. According to this theory sound and sense are closely related and everything when struck gives a peculiar sound and a corresponding sense to the listener.

(4) The 'Pooh-Pooh' Theory: 

This theory holds that the interjections or exclamations of man during his different emotional states e.g., pleasure, pain, anger and surprise, formed the basis for the origin of language.

(5) The 'Babble-Luck' Theory: 

This theory assumes that language is the result of prattling of man while he worked. It was through chance factors that babbling or murmuring of man became to be associated with particular objects and it resulted in the origin of a private language for the personal use of a par ticular man. In due course of time, these private worlds became common for use to all.

(6) The 'Tongue-Tied' Theory: 

According to this thoery, the tongue of a human being is co-ordinated with the body by subtle bonds of imitative relationship. What our body organs do, are readily picked up by our speech organ-the tongue. In other words, our actions of the hands, arms, legs and other organs of the body are tongue-tied.

(7) The Yo- He- Ho - Theory

The propounder of this theory was Novie. This theory assumes that due to muscular exertion, a person produces a sound which gives relief to his system. During this process, the vocal chord vibrates in =different ways. For example, in a game of 'tug of war', the players produce sounds like 'hayi-sha' or an athlete running fast breathes short to regain his breath. Therefore, such sounds are produced to balance the body mechanism.

(8) The Sing Song Theory

This theory was propounded by Prof. Hedson. According to this theory, the source of speech is not gloomy seriousness but mere play and youthful hilarity. As such, the origin of speech can be traced to merry-making, sports, hunting, singing etc.

(9) The Ta-Ta Theory

Louis H. Gray was the originator of this theory. He explained that certain sound produces by the vocal chord is associated unconsciously with a particular kind of gesture. For example, child imitates his parents to produce sound like 'tata' while moving his hand. This action is performed to express his emotion of pleasure when he goes out of the house.

(10) The Contact Theory

This theory states that human beings utter sounds to fulfill his basic needs like hunger, thirst, sex, etc. In many ways, he can contact for communication with his fellow members. For example, when a child is born, the first sound he produces is of discomfort i.e. he cries. This draws the attention of mother or attendant to fulfill his needs. This in turn provides him the security of his mother's womb. Later, he starts associating certain sound to particular activity. 

Conclusion:

Modern theorists hold the view that speech is simply not the manipulation of physical organs. Therefore, it is important to learn about the psychological development of early man. Basically, language evolved with the human need to communicate. It developed in a social situation to convey message among the members of his group.

Language: its Meaning, Definitions, Characteristics & Nature

Utkarsh Education

Language  

Introduction

Aristotle has called man a social animal. As such, he needs to communicate his feelings and thoughts. It is only through language that he can communicate with his fellow-beings. Thus, language is a unique possession of man. It shows his superiority over other animals. Language is the greatest gift with which man is endowed. One cannot think of human society without language. Even Bloomfield has remarked, "Each community is formed by the activity of language."

According to Gleason, "Language is one of the most important and characteristic forms of human behaviour." It is only through language that we are able to think, feel and express ourselves. Hence, language is the flesh and blood of our culture. 

Meaning and Definition of Language

The word 'language' has been derived from the Latin word 'lingua' which implies 'tongue.' French word 'langue' and 'parole' is also related to language. 'Langue' is a specific form of speech which  is conventional and belongs to a particular community. For example, in India we have languages like Punjabi, Bengali, Rajasthani etc. "Parole', also means speech but it denotes the 'individual' side of language i.e. how a person expresses his feelings, emotions and desires while living in a society. 

Educationists have given various definitions of language which are given below:

"Language is the expression of ideas by means of which speech sounds are combined into words, words are combined into sentences and combination of sentences gives answer to ideas and thoughts."   -Sweet

"Language is a set of arbitrary vocal symbols by means of which a social group communicates." -Bloch and Trager

"Language is the set of human habits, the purpose of which is to give expression to human thoughts and feelings especially to impart them to others." -Jesperson

"Language is a purely human and non-instinctive method of communication, ideas, emotions and desires by means of a system of voluntary produced symbols." -Edward Sapir

Characteristics of Language

1. Language is a means or vehicle ti communicate ideas, thoughts, feelings, experiences and emotions

2. Language is a verbal communication or verbal interaction of thoughts and ideas among the members of the society. 

3. Some signs, cries, language, smile and body gestures are also used for communicating something. It is known as non-verbal language o body language, or non-verbal interaction. The verbal interaction take place with the help of a verbal language.

4. Language is the God-given gift or boon for human being on other animals and species can use a language. Man alone uses language, for communication. 

5. Language is signally system which employs vocal sounds and is based on man's abilities and skill to speak.  

6. Language is speech which in turn means the production of meaningful sound according to a system. It is an introduction to the study of speech

7. Language is the system of systems which includes phonemes morphemes, semantics and syntax. 

8. Language is a powerful instrument or tool which has made human civilization and culture.

9. Language is a uniquely human trait, shared by the cultures so divers and by individuals physically and mentally so unlike one another. 

10. Language is purely human and non-instinctive method of conveying c communicating, ideas, feelings, emotions, and desires by means of system of voluntarily produced symbols or alphabets or words. 

11. Language is a social and cultural not a biologically inherited function The skills of a language are reading, writing, speaking and listening are acquired.

12. Language is a highly structured system, which permits an infinite range of permutation.

Nature of Language

The nature of language is based on certain linguistics principles which are given below :-

1. Language is a system.

2. The system of language is arbitrary. 

3. Language is a system of symbols. 

4. The symbols of language are vocal.

5. Language is learned.

6. Language is for communication.

7. Language is related to the culture in which it exists.  

8. Language is made up of habits.

9. Language is social behaviour. 

10. Language is unique.

11. language changes. 

1. Language is a system

Language is a system like that of the human body. The system of the body functions through various organs such as the heart, the lungs etc. The system of language functions through three constituents, eg, the sounds. the structures and the words. There cannot be any utterance without 

2. The system of language is arbitrary

There is no relationship between a particular symbol and the object denoted by it. For example, why do we call a particular object 'tree' or another object 'stone'? There is no relationship between the syrnol 'tree' and the object denoted by it. The same is true in the case of 'stone' or other items of vocabulary. It is a matter of convention. Once the convention is set, it is not for the individual to break it.

The same is true of question and answer forms. Why is it that "Is this a tree?" is a question, and "This is a tree," a statement. It is also a matter of convention. 

3. Language is a system of symbols

Symbols are representations of things rather than the things themselves. The word 'boy' is not a 'boy'. The stands for a 'boy'. Language functions best only when the symbols are known to the speaker and the listener, the writer and the reader.

4. The symbols of language are vocal

Language uses vocal symbols which are made up of speech sounds. These sounds are produced by human beings through various movements of the vocal organs.

5. Language is learned

Language is a learned activity. It does not come automatically, as walking does. The child is not born with the skill of speaking. He has to acquire it after he is born. If a child were to be isolated from society or brought up in the company of deaf people, he would their mother tongue. Since language is a learned activity, we have to teach it and theach it property 

6. Language is for communication

The chief purpose of language is communication. We use language to inform others, to ask them to do certain things or to express our feeling or emotions. For this purpose it is important that we acquire the rights of promociation which is intelligible to others. should, therefor pay attention to correct speech on the part of students.

7. Language is related to the culture in which it exists

A language is the product of a particular society and culture. It has meaning only in relation to that society and culture. The Eskimos, for example, have so many different wards in their language for 'snow. It is because "snow" plays an important part in their lives. But other speakers do not have that number of words for snow. In England to ask a person his salary is considered illmannered, but it is not so in India. The way of greeting, saying thanks etc. are different in different countries. It is because of cultural differences.

While learning a foreign language, a person does not only learn that langugae but he also gets acquainted with the culture of the people whose language he is learning. The culture aim of teaching a language cannot be ignored.

8. Language is made up of habits

According to Jesperson, "Language is a set of human habits, the purpose of which is to give expression to thoughts and feelings." The system of language is to be mastered at the habit level. When a person speaks his other tongue, he does not consider the position of the various speech organs while making the meaningful noises. Nor does he think of the ways in which he putting various words to form sentences. It is because speaking has become a matter of habit with him. No person can be said to have learnt a language unless he masters it at the habit level.

The implication of this principle is that the students should be provided intensive practice in the use of language. The teacher should provide opportunities to the students to use the language. 

9. Language is social behaviour

The features of language are not inherited in the biological sense, that is, heredity does not predispose a person to learn one language more easily than another. Language is social behaviour. A child picks up the language of his environment. If a child born in Tamil Nadu, is brought up in London, he will pick up English, but if he is taken away to Maseow, he will learn Russian.

10. Language is unique 

Each language is unique. No two language have the same sound, grammatical or lexical systems. All language differ in these respects. So fresh efforts have to be made to learn a language.

11. Language changes

Language is not static. A living language, like human beings changes. If we study the history of any language, we shall notice the numerous changes that have taken place in it over the years.

Changes take place in all aspects of language. This is more so in the case of vocabulary. Words come and go. They are born and die. Words are invented according to need. We have noticed that thousands of words have been added to Indian language after Independence. English too has borrowed words from various languages. Besides this, words change their meaning from time to time. The word sad once meant 'full to the brim', 'well fed'. Then it meant 'solid'. Later on, it was appled to a person who was reliable and firm. Then it got its present meaning.

Curriculum - Meaning, Definitions, Nature and Characteristics.

Utkarsh Education

Meaning of Curriculum

1. Etymological Meaning of Curriculum: 

The term 'curriculum' has originated from the Latin word 'currere' meaning "race course". In its etymological sense, we can say that it is the course which a person has to run across to arrive at the destination. From this viewpoint, education becomes a race which is run on the course of curriculum, and by which the aim of personality development of a child is achieved.

2. Narrow Meaning of Curriculum: 

In its narrow sense, the term 'curriculum' is considered synonym of 'course of study' or syllabus, which limits the facts of some subjects. Thus, in its narrow sense, curriculum is limited to only bookish knowledge. There is no place in it for a child's needs, interests, attitudes, aptitude, abilities and activities pertaining to practical life. In brief, we can say that in its narrow sense, by curriculum is meant that course in which only bookish knowledge is provided to students.

3. Wider Meaning of Curriculum: 

In its wide sense, the term 'curriculum' comprises of all those experiences which a child receives in and out of classroom for his all-round development keeping in with his needs. interests, aptitudes, attitudes and abilities, through different activities such as studies, games and co-curricular activities. 

According to Munroe, curriculum comprises of all those educational experiences which are obtained for the realization of educational aims.

According to Bent and Kroneberg, curriculum is the systematic form of contents of studies which is prepared for meeting the needs of students.

In brief we can say that by curriculum is meant all those experiences and activities organised for students which are helpful for their and the society's all-round development

Definitions of Curriculum

1. "It (curriculum) is a tool in the hands of the artist (teacher) to mould his material (pupil) according to his ideal (objective) in his studio (school)." Cunningham

2. "Curriculum should be conceived as an epitome of the whole of knowledge and experience of the human race." -Froebel 

3. "Curriculum, in its broader sense, includes the complete school environment, involving all the course, activities, reading and associations furnished to the pupils in the school." -Rudyard K. Bent and Henry H. Kroneberg 

4. "Curriculum embodies all the experiences which are offered to learner under spices or direction of the school." -R. Dall 

5. "Subject matter of learning or curriculum is identical with all the objects, ideals and principles which enter as resources obstacles into the continuous intentional pursuit at a course of action." -John Dewey

6. "The curriculum is the sum total of the activities that go on in the environment." -Anon

7. "Curriculum does not mean the academic subject taught in the school but it includes total experience that a child receives at a school." -The Secondary Education Commission

Nature of Curriculum

(1) The Curriculum is Continuously Evolving:  To be viable and effective, the curricular programme must have continuous evaluation and reappraisal. A programme must adopt its educational activities and services to meet the needs of a modern and dynamic community.

(2) The Curriculum is Based on the Needs of the People: It is imperative in developing a programme to begin with those that concern the people themselves. Their years of experience can be a good source that can be woven into the fabric of the class-room presentation.

(3) The Curriculum is Democratically Conceived: The minds and energies of many people who are in intimate contact with the interests, needs and resources of the community will create a more effective product than the individual director could possibly provide by working alone.

(4) The Curriculum is the Result of Long-term Effort: Enthusiasm for a prosed curriculum activity often impels proponents to push for immediate action. But a class or service that is begun hurriedly and folds quickly may hurt the long-term continuance of the programme.

(5) The Curriculum is a Complex Details:  A friendly social meeting, good-student teacher relationships, effective guidance opportunities, and favourable attitude on the part of individuals groups, and organizations within the community are necessary ingredients for a successful programme.

(6) The Curriculum Provides for Logical Sequence of Subject Matter: Classes and activities should be planned so as to achieve an orderly development of subject matter and step-by-step progress of the learner.

(7) The Curriculum Complements and Cooperates with other programmes in the Community: The public school should not try to monopolize the education scene at the community level. Its major concern should be to see that the jobs get done regardless of who does it. 

(8) The Curriculum has Educational Quality:  Curriculum must be made up of offerings that pass the test of good and sound education. We speak of quality education but there has to be quality curriculum as well. as Flexibility is a good trait of good curriculum. A curriculum must be ready to incorporate changes whenever necessary.

(9) The Curriculum has Administrative Flexibility:  A good curriculum must be ready to incorporate changes whenever necessary. The curriculum is open to revision and development to meet the demands of globalization and the digital age.

(10) Conducive to all Learning Styles:  A good curriculum want leave anyone out. In any given class-room there will be representation of several learning styles. Depending on the child, he or her favourable learning style may be Auditory (Learns best by Listening), Kinesthetic (Learns best through hand-on-activities), or Visual (Learns best through sight). Because every child is different, a great curriculum takes every child into account and gives opportunities for each one to connect with the lesson through his or her preferred learning style.

Characteristics of Curriculum

1. Curriculum is continuously evolving.

2. The Curriculum is based on the needs of the people.

3. The Curriculum has educational quality.

4. The Curriculum as administrative flexibility.

5. The Curriculum is democratically conceived.

6. The Curriculum should have simplicity.

7. The Curriculum is the result of long-term effort.

8. The Curriculum is a complex details.

9. The Curriculum provides for logical sequence of subject matter.

10. The Curriculum should have clarity.

11. The Curriculum should show priority.

12. The Curriculum compliments and Cooperates with other programmes in Community.

पाठ्यक्रम का क्षेत्र, कार्य , आवश्यकता तथा पाठ्यक्रम को प्रभावित करने वाले घटक (Curriculum's Scope, Function, Need and Factors Influencing the Curriculum)

Utkarsh Education

 

पाठ्यक्रम का क्षेत्र 

(Scope of Curriculum)

पाठ्यक्रम के द्वारा ही शिक्षा के उद्देश्यों की प्राप्ति की जाती है अतः शिक्षा नियोजन के लिए पाठ्यक्रम आवश्यक है। इसकी उपयोगिता अधोलिखित है

1. शिक्षा के उद्देश्य की प्राप्ति (Achievement of the Aims of Education)- शिक्षा की व्यवस्था पाठ्यक्रम पर आधारित होती है। जब तक पाठ्यक्रम का सही नियोजन नहीं किया जाता तब तक शिक्षा के उद्देश्यों की प्राप्ति नहीं हो सकती, क्योंकि पाठ्यक्रम का स्वरूप शिक्षा के उद्देश्यों के अनुसार निर्मित होता है।

2. शिक्षा प्रक्रिया का व्यवस्थीकरण (Organisation of Educational Process) - पाठ्यक्रमः एक ऐसा लेखा-जोखा है जिससे यह स्पष्ट रूप से अंकित किया जाता है कि शिक्षा के किस जीवन स्तर पर विद्यालयों में कौन-सी क्रियाओं की तथा कौन से विषयों की शिक्षा दी जायेगी। इस प्रकार पाठ्यक्रम विद्यालयी कार्यक्रम की रूपरेखा बनाता अथवा शिक्षा की प्रक्रिया को व्यवस्थित करता है।

3. क्या और कैसा ज्ञान (What and how much) - पाठ्यक्रम अध्यापकों के लिए अत्यन्त उपयोगी है। बिना इसके वे यह नहीं जान सकते कि उन्हें क्या और कितना ज्ञान बालकों को देना है? पाठ्यक्रम के आधार पर ही वे ठीक प्रकार से काम करते हैं और उन्हें यह मालूम रहता है कि एक निश्चित अवधि के अन्दर उन्हें अमुक कक्षा में कितना कार्य समाप्त करना है।

4. समय एवं शक्ति का प्रयोग (Proper use of Time and Energy) - पाठ्यक्रम से अध्यापकों को यह ज्ञात रहता है कि उन्हें क्या सिखाना है और कितने समय में सिखाना है? इसी प्रकार छात्रों को भी यह ज्ञान रहता है कि उन्हें क्या सीखना है और कितने समय में सीखना है। इसी प्रका शिक्षा और छात्र दोनों ही एक निश्चित समय के अन्दर कार्य पूरा करते हैं। अतः इसके द्वारा समय एवं शक्ति का सदुपयोग होता है।

5. ज्ञानोपार्जन (Acquisition of Knowledge)- ज्ञानोपार्जन करने में पाठ्यक्रम बालकों को सहायता करता है। यह सही है कि ज्ञान एक है, परन्तु मनुष्य ने अपनी सुविधा के लिए इसके कई भा कर लिए हैं; जैसे—साहित्य, गणित, विज्ञान, सामाजिक विषय इत्यादि। ज्ञान के इन विभिन्न भाग के ज्ञानार्थ पाठ्यक्रम की रचना की जाती है।

6. चारित्रिक विकास (Development of Character) - चारित्रिक विकास की दृष्टि से शिक्षा इस बात पर बल देती है कि बालकों के अन्दर मानवीय गुणः जैसे-सत्य, सेवा, त्याग, परोपकार सद्भावना इत्यादि उत्पन्न किए जाएं। यह कार्य पाठ्यक्रम के द्वारा ही पूर्ण होता है। इन गुणों का विकसित करके इन्हीं के अनुसार बालकों से आचरण करवाना पाठ्यक्रम का उद्देश्य है।

7. पाठ्यपुस्तकों का निर्माण (Preparation of Text Books)- पाठ्यक्रम के आधार पर ही पाठ्यपुस्तकों की रचना की जाती है। पाठ्यपुस्तकों में वही सामग्री रखी जाती है जो किसी स्तर के पाठ्यक्रम के अनुकूल हो । पाठ्यक्रम न होने पर पुस्तकों में अनावश्यक बातें भी सम्मिलित हो सकती है। पाठ्यक्रम इस स्थिति से हमारी रक्षा करता है।

8. मूल्यांकन में सरलता (Easy Evaluation)— किसी कक्षा स्तर के पाठ्यक्रम के आधार पर ही उस कक्षा के छात्रों की योग्यता का मूल्यांकन सम्भव होता है। पाठ्यक्रम के अभाव में मूल्यांकन कठिन होगा।

9. नागरिकों का निर्माण (Preparation of Citizens)— शिक्षा का उद्देश्य उपयोग एवं आदर्श नागरिकों का निर्माण करना है। आदर्श एवं उपयोगी नागरिक वहीं है जिसकी शक्तियाँ पूर्णरूप से विकसित हो, जो कानून का पालन करें, न्यायानुकूल आचरण करें और जिसमें स्वतन्त्र चिन्तन और निर्माण की शक्तियाँ शामिल हों, इन बातों की क्षमता एवं योग्यता उत्पन्न करने के लिए ही पाठ्यक्रम का निर्माण होता है।

10. अन्वेषकों की उत्पत्ति (Origin of Discoverer)—– पाठ्यक्रम ऐसे ज्ञान पिपासुओं तथा विद्वानों को जन्म देता है जो अध्ययन, उद्योग एवं शोधकार्य, ज्ञान में वृद्धि करते हैं। सामाजिक परिवर्तन के साथ समस्याओं के लिए शोध अध्ययनों की आवश्यकता है।

पाठ्यक्रम के कार्य

 (Functions of Curriculum)

शिक्षा की प्रक्रिया के तीन घटक होते हैं— (1) शिक्षक, (2) विद्यार्थी, (3) पाठ्यक्रम। शिक्षण में शिक्षक तथा विद्यार्थी के मध्य अन्तःक्रिया (Interaction) पाठ्यक्रम के माध्यम से होती है। इस प्रकार पाठ्यक्रम शिक्षण की क्रियाओं को दिशा प्रदान करता है। इन तीनों घटकों की पारस्परिक अन्तःक्रिया द्वारा बालक का विकास किया जाता है। शिक्षण में उक्त तीनों घटकों का विशेष महत्व है। शिक्षण की इस प्रक्रिया में पाठ्यक्रम के कार्यों को निम्नलिखित बिन्दुओं में स्पष्ट किया जा सकता है

1. शिक्षा के निर्धारित उद्देश्यों को प्राप्त करना।

2. शिक्षा के विभिन्न विषयों के शिक्षण और क्रियाओं के उद्देश्यों को प्राप्त करना।

3. विद्यार्थियों की मनोवैज्ञानिक आवश्यकताओं की पूर्ति करना। 

4. शिक्षण-अधिगम की प्रक्रिया को व्यवस्थित करना।

5. समय और शक्ति के सदुपयोग का मार्ग प्रशस्त करना। 

6. पाठ्यपुस्तकों के निर्माण में सहायता करना।

7. प्रश्नपत्रों को बनाने और उत्तरों के मूल्यांकन में सहायता करना। 

8. शिक्षा के स्तर को समान रखना। 

9 शिक्षकों को छात्रों के हित में लक्ष्य निर्धारित करने में सहायता करना। 

10. विद्यार्थियों में उपयुक्त मानसिक एवं शारीरिक दृष्टिकोणों और आदतों का विकास करना।

पाठ्यक्रम की आवश्यकता 

(Needs of Curriculum)

शिक्षा की आवश्यकता और पाठ्यक्रम की आवश्यकता समान है। परन्तु शिक्षा ऐतिहासिक समीक्षा से विदित होता है कि ये आवश्यकताएँ बदलती रहती हैं। इसलिए इन सभी आवश्यकताओं का उल्लेख यहाँ पर किया गया है

1. ज्ञान प्राप्त करने के लिए अन्य जीवों से प्रमुख भिन्नता मानवीय ज्ञान की दृष्टि मानी जाती है। 

2. मानसिक पक्षों का प्रशिक्षण तथा विकास करने के लिए विभिन्न विषयों शिक्षण से मानसिक पक्षों का प्रशिक्षण किया जाता है।

3. व्यवसाय तथा नौकरियों के लिए तैयार करना। शिक्षा नौकरियों के लिए है।

4. छात्रों में अभिरुवियाँ उत्पन्न करने के लिए छात्रों की क्षमताओं के अनुरूप उनका विकास करना।

5. प्रजातन्त्र में सामाजिक क्षमताओं का विकास करना तथा ऐसे नागरिको को तैयार करना जो प्रजातन्त्र को नेतृत्व प्रदान कर सके।

6. छात्रों को व्यवसायों के लिए प्रशिक्षण देकर तैयार करना नई शिक्षा नीति की प्राथमिकता है। 

7. आम मानवीय गुणों के विकास के लिए शिक्षा में महत्त्व दिया जाता है। आत्मानुभूति का विकास किया जाए।

8. सामाजिक आवश्यकताओं के लिए नागरिकों को तैयार करना तथा सौन्दर्यानुभूति गुणों का विकास करना। 

9. प्रमुख आवश्यकता आज जीने की है कि आज की परिस्थितियों में जीवित रह सकें। इसके लिए प्रशिक्षण दिया जाए। 

10. छात्रों को भावी जीवन के लिए तैयार कर सके। शिक्षा भावी जीवन-यापन के लिए दी जाती है।

11. तकनीकी विकास तथा वैज्ञानिक आविष्कारों के लिए भी तैयार करना। 

शिक्षा एक सामाजिक प्रक्रिया है जो सामाजिक परिवर्तन एवं सामाजिक नियन्त्रण के लिए प्रभावी यन्त्र है। इसलिए समाज व राष्ट्र की भावी आवश्यकताओं एवं परिवर्तनों के लिए पाठ्यक्रम का विकास करना प्रमुख आवश्यकता है।

पाठ्यक्रम को प्रभावित करने वाले घटक 

(Factors Influencing Curriculum)

पाठ्यक्रम का सम्पादन शैक्षिक तथा सामाजिक परिस्थितियों में किया जाता है। इसलिए शैक्षिक तथा सामाजिक घटक पाठ्यक्रम को प्रभावित करते हैं। यहाँ पर पाठ्यक्रम को प्रभावित करने वाले चटकों का विवेचन किया गया है |

1. शिक्षा-व्यवस्था (Organization of Education)- शिक्षा के इतिहास से यह विदित है कि अतीतकाल से ही शिक्षा-व्यवस्था और पाठ्यक्रम का गहन सम्बन्ध रहा है और एक-दूसरे क प्रभावित करते रहे है। पाठ्यक्रम प्रायः लचीला तथा परिवर्तनशील रहा है। छोटे बालकों का पाठ्यक्रम अनुभव केन्द्रित रहा है। माध्यमिक स्तर विषय-केन्द्रित रहा है। शिक्षा-व्यवस्था के बदलने के पाठ्यक्रम प्रारूप भी बदल जाता है।

2. परीक्षा प्रणाली (Examination System) – परीक्षा प्रणाली पाठ्यक्रम को प्रभवित करती है। निबन्धात्मक परीक्षा के पाठ्यक्रम का स्वरूप वस्तुनिष्ठ परीक्षा से बिल्कुल ही भिन्न प्रकार का होता है। वस्तुनिष्ठ परीक्षा में पाठ्यवस्तु के सूक्ष्म पाठ्यवस्तु पर ही प्रश्न पूछे जाते हैं, जबकि निवन्यात्मक परीक्षा पाठ्यवस्तु के व्यापक स्वरूप पर प्रश्न पूछे जाते हैं। निबन्धात्मक परीक्षा से उच्च उद्देश्यों का मापन किया जाता है जबकि वस्तुनिष्ठ से निम्न उद्देश्यों का ही आंकलन किया जाता है।

3. शासन पद्धति (Form of Government) – शिक्षा द्वारा राष्ट्र तथा समाज की आवश्यकताओं की पूर्ति की जाती है। शासन प्रणाली बदलने से पाठ्यक्रम के प्रारूप को बदलना होता है। केन्द्र तथा राज्य स्तर की पार्टी को सत्ता में बदलने से भी पाठ्यक्रम के प्रारूप पर प्रभाव पड़ता है। 

4. अध्ययन समिति (Board of Studies)- पाठ्यक्रम के प्रारूप का निर्माण अध्ययन समितियों द्वारा किया जाता है। विभिन्न स्तरों पर अध्ययन समितियों के द्वारा पाठ्यक्रम का निर्माण तथा सुधार किया जाता है। अध्ययन समिति के सदस्यों की सूझबूझ तथा अनुभवों द्वारा ही पाठ्यक्रम के प्रारूप को विकसित करते हैं। इसलिए इन सदस्यों की अभिरुचियों, अभिवृत्तियों तथा मानसिक क्षमताओं का सीधा प्रभाव पड़ता है। 

5. राष्ट्रीय शिक्षा आयोग तथा समितियाँ (National Education Commission and Committees) – शिक्षा में सुधार और विकास हेतु राष्ट्रीय शिक्षा आयोग तथा समितियाँ गठित की जाती हैं। भारत में स्वतन्त्रता के बाद से अनेक आयोग तथा समितियाँ गठित की गई। उन्होंने विश्वविद्यालय, माध्यमिक तथा प्राथमिक स्तर पर सुधार के लिए सुझाव दिए और उन सुझावों को लागू व्यवस्था पाठ्य करने का प्रयास किया गया जिससे पाठ्यक्रम के प्रारूप को भी बदलना पड़ा। 

6. सामाजिक परिवर्तन (Social Change) - सामाजिक परिवर्तन में आर्थिक परिवर्तनों को गति अधिक तीव्र है इसलिए ये आर्थिक तथा भौतिक परिवर्तन भी पाठ्यक्रम को प्रभावित करते है। विज्ञान तथा तकनीक के प्रशिक्षण (कम्प्यूटर) आदि सम्बन्धी नये पाठ्यक्रम विकसित किए जा रहे हैं। शिक्षा के अन्तर्गत दूरवर्ती शिक्षा (Distance Education) प्रणाली का विकास हुआ है, जिसमें माध्यमों तथा सम्प्रेषण विधियों का विशेष महत्त्व दिया गया है।

पाठ्यक्रम का प्रारूप भावी जीवन की तैयारी की दृष्टि से विकसित किया जाता है। छात्र, परिवार, विद्यालय व्यवस्था, सामाजिक परिवर्तन तथा आवश्यकताएँ पाठ्यक्रम के प्रारूप को विकसित करने में सहायक होते हैं परन्तु अतोत परम्पराओं और भावी जीवन में समन्वय स्थापित करना पड़ता है। छात्र की सामान्य तथा विशिष्ट आवश्यकताओं को ध्यान में रखना होता है।