संगठन ( Organization): अर्थ एवं परिभाषा, कार्य (FUNCTIONS), सावधानियाँ (Cautions)

 संगठन ( Organization)

संगठन : अर्थ एवं परिभाषा
(Organization : Meaning and Definition)

संगठन से अभिप्राय उस व्यवस्था से है जो प्रशासन द्वारा भौतिक और मानवीय साधनों को जुटाने के लिए की जाती है। संगठन प्रशासन का द्वितीय आधारभूत कार्य है। यह कार्य दो रूपों में किया जाता है, प्रथम ‐ मानवीय संगठन द्वितीय भौतिक संगठन। प्रथम मानवीय संगठन में शिक्षक, कर्मचारीगण, समितियाँ, छात्रगण तथा अन्य सम्बन्धित मानवीय तत्त्व सम्मिलित रहते हैं और द्वितीय भौतिक संगठन में भवन, पुस्तकालय, प्रयोगशालाएं खेल का मैदान तथा अन्य शैक्षिक सहायक सामग्री सम्मिलित हैं। संगठन इस प्रकार दोनों तत्त्वों में समन्वय स्थापित करता है और इन्हें इस प्रकार व्यवस्थित करता है कि उद्देश्य प्राप्ति में कोई असुविधा न हो। यह व्यवस्था औपचारिक और अनौपचारिक दोनों रूप में संभव है। औपचारिक व्यवस्था में कार्यकर्ताओं का एक पदानुक्रम होता है, इनमें कार्य वरिष्ठ अथवा अधीनस्थ के रूप में बॅटे होते है तथा इनमें संगठनात्मक सम्बन्ध आदेशों और सूचनाओं के आदान-प्रदान से होता है, जबकि अनौपचारिक व्यवस्था में सम्बन्ध व्यक्तिगत अभिवृत्ति, रुचि, विश्वास, मान्यता, विचार और कार्य के आधार बनते हैं। संगठन के दोनों रूपों में समन्वय के अभाव में लक्ष्य प्राप्ति असम्भव है। इसलिए संगठन एक यन्त्र के रूप में कार्य करता है। संगठन को विभिन्न विद्वानों ने निम्नलिखित रूप में परिभाषित किया है—

1- मैफारलेण्ड के अनुसार, "मनुष्यों का एक पहचान समूह जो अपने प्रयत्नों को उद्देश्य प्राप्ति में लगता है संगठन कहलाता है।

 "An identifiable group of people contributing their effets towards the attainment of goals is called organization" - Mefarland

2- प्रो० एल०एच० हैनी के शब्दों में, "संगठन एक विशिष्ट भाग का सुसंगत समायोजन है जो कुछ सामान्य उद्देश्यों को सम्पादित करता है।"

"Organization is a harmonious adjustment of specialised part for the accomplishment of some common purpose or purposes"  -L. H. HANEY

3- डॉ० एस०एन० मुखर्जी (Dr. S. N. Mukherji) के अनुसार, संगठन कार्य करने की मशीन है।इसका मुख्य उद्देश्य व्यवस्था करने से सम्बन्धित है ताकि समग्र कार्यक्रम का संचालन किया जा सके।"

4- जॉन डब्ल्यू० वाल्टन (John. W. Waslten) के अनुसार, "संगठन कार्यरत व्यक्तियों का एक समूह है जो समान उद्देश्यों की प्राप्ति के लिए साथ-साथ मिलकर कार्य करते हैं।" 

 अतः स्पष्ट है कि शैक्षिक उद्देश्यों की प्राप्ति के लिए उपलब्ध समस्त भौतिक एवं मानवीय तत्त्वों की समुचित व्यवस्था करना ही संगठन है और इसका सम्बन्ध संरचना और मानव सम्बन्ध दोनों से है और इसे संचालित करके लक्ष्य की प्राप्ति की जा सकती है।

संगठन सम्बन्धी कार्य (FUNCTIONS RELATED TO ORGANIZATION)

प्रशासन का द्वितीय आधारभूत कार्य संगठन है। संगठन एक व्यवस्था है जिससे मानवीय और द्वितीय भौतिक संगठनभौतिक साधनों में समन्वय स्थापित किया जाता है। इस दृष्टि से प्रशासन के संगठन सम्बन्धी विविध कार्यों को हम निम्नलिखित रूप से समझ सकते हैं-

(1) कार्य को सरल और लाभप्रद बनाना- कुशल संगठन प्रशासनिक कार्यों को सरल बना देताहै। इसके फलस्वरूप प्रशासन और प्रबन्ध की क्षमता में वृद्धि होती है। इस प्रकार अच्छा संगठन कार्यकर्ताओं की योग्यता एवं अनुभव का लाभ उठाता है जबकि अयोग्य उद्देश्यपूर्ति में सहायक नहीं हो पाता है और उद्देश्यहीन कार्यों में समय की बर्बादी करता है।

(2) मूल्यवान, चरित्रवान कार्यकर्त्ता तैयार करना -  कुशल संगठन ईमानदार, परिश्रमी, समर्पित, उच्च मूल्य और नैतिक चरित्र से युक्त कार्यकर्ताओं का निर्माण करता है। संगठन की आवश्यकता के अनुसार व्यक्तियों को तैयार करता है। उनका नैतिक विकास करके भ्रष्टाचार को रोकता है। इस प्रकार अच्छा संगठन कार्यकर्ता को मूल्यों से युक्त करता है और उसमें विविध चारित्रिक मूल्यों का विकास करके संगठन को प्रभावशाली बनाता है।

(3) सृजनात्मकता का विकास करना- कुशल संगठन कार्य की महत्ता को स्वीकार करता है, उसे सद्ध करता है और संगठन की प्राथमिकता के आधार पर कार्य का विवरण और व्यवस्था करता है। इस प्रकार कार्य विभाजन से कार्यकर्त्ता में सृजनात्मकता का विकास होता है और यह कम समय और कम व्यय में अधिक और अच्छा उत्पादन सम्भव बनाता है।

(4) स्वाभाविक विकास को बढ़ावा देना- कुशल संगठन इस प्रकार का ढाँचा (Structure) तैयार करता है जिसमें विकास क्रम स्वाभाविक रूप से चलता रहता है। इसे स्वविकास तो होता ही है साथ ही क्रियाकलापों का विस्तार भी होता है। इस प्रकार इन विकसित क्रियाकलापों के द्वारा प्रगति  शीघ्रतापूर्वक होती है। 

(5) विभिन्न कार्यों एवं साधनों में समन्वय स्थापित करना - संगठन विशिष्टीकरण वर्गीकरण के कार्यों में समन्वय स्थापित करता है और मानवीय एवं भौतिक साधनों को इस प्रकार समन्वित करता है। ताकि कम-से-कम व्यय कर अधिक-से-अधिक सके इससे विकास की दर में तेजी आती है और प्रशासनिक विकास में सहायता मिलती है।

(6) संसाधनों का समुचित एवं तकनीकी का अधिकतम उपयोग करना - कुशल संगठन संसाधनों को इस प्रकार व्यवस्थित करता है, जिससे इन साधनों का समुचित उपयोग हो सके और साथ ही तकनीकी का अधिकतम उपयोग करके उत्पादन में वृद्धि की जा सके। इस प्रकार यह कम-से-कम प्रयत्न से अधिक उत्पाद सम्भव बनाता है।

(7) विकास की गति को तीव्रता प्रदान करना - कुशल संगठन कार्यकर्त्ताओं के लिए प्रशिक्षण की व्यवस्था करता है। प्रशिक्षित व्यक्तियों को प्रशासन में विभिन्न पदों पर नियुक्ति प्रदान करता है और उनकी कुशलता तथा योग्यता का अधिकतम लाभ प्राप्त कर संगठन के विकास को तीव्रगति प्रदान करता है।

संगठन की सावधानियाँ
(Carefulness in Organization)

संगठन का निर्धारण करते समय हमें निम्नलिखित बातों का ध्यान रखना चाहिए-

(i) निर्धारित उद्देश्यों की प्राप्ति को दृष्टिगत रखते हुए विभिन्न तत्त्वों को संगठित किया जाना चाहिए।

 (ii) मानवीय और भौतिक तत्वों के अतिरिक्त अन्य विचार, धारणाएँ, नियम, सिद्धान्त, आदर्श आदि का भी कार्य निर्धारण के समय ध्यान रखना चाहिए।

(iii) संगठन के नियम और निर्णय आदि सभी व्यक्तियों के लिये लाभकारी होने चाहिए।

(iv) संगठन का स्वरूप छोटा या बड़ा हो सकता है। यह शिक्षा योजना के अनुसार अल्पकालिक और पूर्णकालिक हो सकता है। किसी भी रूप में संगठन प्रशासनिक कार्य में असुविधा उत्पन्न करनेवाला नहीं होना चाहिए। 

(v) संगठन का आधार प्रजातान्त्रिक होना चाहिए, तभी शिक्षा कार्य सफल हो सकेगा।

(vi) संगठन को पक्षपात, राजनीति, जातिवाद तथा अन्य विरोधी एवं दूषित तत्वों से दूर रखना चाहिए 

(vii) संगठन का स्वरूप योजना के अनुरूप निर्धारित करना चाहिए और सम्प्रेषण की उचित व्यवस्था होनी चाहिए।

नियोजन (Planning): अर्थ एवं परिभाषा, कार्य (Functions), सावधानियां (Cautions)

 नियोजन (Planning)

नियोजन का अर्थ एवं परिभाषा

(Meaning and Definition of Planning)

नियोजन से अभिप्राय एक ऐसी सुनिश्चित योजना रूपरेखा बनाने से है, जिसके द्वारा उददेशयो की  प्राप्ति की जा सके, कार्यप्रणाली को बिना किसी बाधा के आगे बढ़ाया जा सके, सहयोगी व्यक्तियों एवं परिस्थितियों का लाभ उठाया जा सके तथा सहायक सामग्री और उपलब्ध वस्तुओं का समुचित उपयोग किया जा सके। इस प्रकार योजना का अर्थ विभिन्न विकल्पों में से सबसे अच्छे को चुनना है। ये विकल्प उद्देश्य, प्रक्रिया, नीतियाँ  और कार्यक्रम आदि हो सकते हैं। यह प्रगतिशील प्रक्रिया है जो वर्तमान के साथ भविष्य को भी देखती है। भविष्य के वैज्ञानिक एवं तकनीकी विकास नई खोजें एवं सामाजिक तथा राजनीतिक परिवर्तन को दृष्टिगत रखते हुए योजना का निर्माण लचीला होना चाहिए। नियोजन को विभिन्न विद्वानों ने परिभाषित किया है।

1- कुण्ट्ज और ओ'डोनेल – "नियोजन एक मानसिक क्रिया है। यह एक विशेष तरीके से कार्य करने का सचेतन निश्चयात्मक प्रयास है।" 

"Planning is a mental activity, it is a concious determination of doing work in particular way. - Koontz and O'Donnel 

2- जेम्स एल० लुण्डी – "नियोजन का अर्थ है कि क्या करना है, कहाँ करना है, कैसेकरना है, कौन करेगा और इसके परिणाम का मूल्यांकन कैसे होगा?"

"The meaning of planning is to determine what is to be done, where is to be done, how is to be done, who is to do it and how the results are to be evaluated" - James L Lundi

 3- जे० बी० सीयर्स –  "नियोजन में प्रशासन का सीधा- सादा अर्थ हैं किसी काम को करने के लिए या किसी समस्या को हल करने के लिए निर्णय लेने हेतु तैयार हो जाओ।"

अतः किसी भी कार्य को व्यवस्थित रूप से चलाने के लिये सुनिश्चित योजना बनाना आवश्यक है। 

जॉन मिलर (John D. Miller) के शब्दों में, "नियोजन यानि किसी काम को करने के लिए बुद्धिपूर्वक तैयारी अर्थात् कार्य को कब और कैसे सम्पादित किया जाए।

नियोजन सम्बन्धी कार्य
(Functions Related to Planning)

नियोजन प्रशासन का प्रथम आधारभूत कार्य है। नियोजन के अभाव में उद्देश्य प्राप्ति कठिन कार्य है और उपलब्ध साधानों का अधिकतम उपयोग भी योजना निर्माण करके ही प्राप्त किया जा सकता है। अतः प्रशासन योजना निर्माण और उसकी क्रियान्वित के माध्यम से निम्नलिखित कार्यों को सफलतापूर्वक सम्पन्न कर सकता है---

(1) समन्वय स्थापित करना— योजना निर्माण करके प्रशासन विभिन्न कार्यों में समन्वय स्थापित सकता है और उन पर नियन्त्रण सुगमतापूर्वक कर सकता है। इससे प्रबन्धकीय कार्य क्षमता में वृद्धि होगी।

 (2) उद्देश्य प्राप्त करना— शैक्षिक नियोजन का निर्माण करके प्रशासन निर्धारित उद्देश्यों की प्राप्ति कर सकता है और उपलब्ध साधन व सामग्री का अधिकतम उपयोग कर सकता है। इससे प्रत्येक कार्यकर्ता को उसकी योग्यता व क्षमता के अनुरूप कार्य मिलने से प्रशासन आसानी से कार्य कर सकेगा।

(3) आवश्यकता की पूर्ति करना — योजना छोटी हो या बड़ी इसके निर्माण से आवश्यकता और लक्ष्य दोनों की पूर्ति होती है। अतः प्रशासन को इसके निर्माण में वर्तमान, भूत और भविष्य का ध्यान रखना चाहिए ताकि छोटी योजना को भी आवश्यकतानुसार बड़ा बनाया जा सके।

(4) विभिन्न अनुभवों का ज्ञान – योजना निर्माण से प्रशासन को विभिन्न परिस्थितियों, कार्यो कार्य-विधियों, कार्यकर्ता और उसकी योग्यता एवं अनुभवों का पता चलता है। इसका उपयोग वह कुशलता पूर्व करके लाभान्वित हो सकता है। इससे प्रभावी नियन्त्रण की स्थापना सम्भव होगी।

(5) जोखिम कम करना – योजना निर्माण से प्रशासन उस अनिश्चितता और जोखिम को ककम रता है, जो उसके निर्माण के बिना होती है। बिना योजना के कार्य अस्पष्टता बनी रहती है।

(6) प्रशासन को प्रेरित करना – योजना निर्माण प्रशासन के उद्देश्य प्राप्ति के लिए प्रेरित कर है। यह भविष्य की सम्भावनाओं को बल प्रदान करता है और अधिकरियों को अपने कर्तव्य व उत्तरदायित्व का ज्ञान भी कराता है।

(7) अतार्किक निर्णय पर रोक – योजना निर्माण में उन निर्णयों पर रोक लगती है जो अतार्किक,  अलाभप्रद और अत्यधिक खर्चीले हैं। अत यह कार्य को निश्चितता प्रदान करती है, उचित दिशा प्रदान करती है और उद्देश्यों का सही ज्ञान देकर समन्वय और समानता की ओर अग्रसर करती है।

नियोजन में सावधानियां (Carefulness in Planning)

नियोजन करते समय प्रशासन को कुछ महत्त्वपूर्ण बातों को ध्यान में रखना आवश्यक है। 

 (i) योजना का निर्माण प्रजातन्त्र के सिद्धान्तों पर होना चाहिए। सभी को अपने विचार रखने की स्वतन्त्रता होनी चाहिए और सभी को समान रूप से भाग लेने की छूट होनी चाहिए। 

(ii) शिक्षा के लक्ष्य प्रत्येक स्तर पर स्थिर और निश्चित होने चाहिए योजना का उद्देश्य कम-से-कम समय और कम-से-कम व्यय में उत्तम कार्य होना चाहिए।

(iii) योजना का निर्माण शैक्षिक उन्नति के लिए होना चाहिए और इनमें वस्तुनिष्ठता तथा निष्पक्षता होनी चाहिए। 

(iv) कार्यकर्ताओं को प्रत्येक स्तर पर उनकी क्षमता एवं योग्यता के अनुसार कार्य का विभाजन होना चाहिए और इन योजनाओं का सम्बन्ध वर्तमान तथा भविष्य की योजनाओं से होना चाहिए।

(v) योजना की क्रियान्वित सफलतापूर्वक होनी चाहिए और इसके लिए सम्बन्धित कार्य-प्रणाली, विधि-विधान, सभी साधन स्रोतों का निर्धारण एवं योगदान होना चाहिए।

 (vi) योजना निर्माण के समय ध्यान रखना चाहिए कि सभी व्यक्तियों का सहयोग सक्रिय रूप से मिले।

 (vii) योजना में स्वाभाविक रूप से लचीलापन होना चाहिए ताकि समय और आवश्यकतानुसार उसने परिवर्तन और परिवर्द्धन किया जा सके।

अतः स्पष्ट है कि प्रशासन के आधारभूत कार्यों में प्रथम नियोजन अर्थात् योजना निर्माण एवं उसका क्रियान्वयन महत्त्वपूर्ण कार्य है। योजना की सफलता उपलब्ध साधन स्रोतों का अधिकतम उपयोग है। इस सन्दर्भ में इलियट एवं मॉसियर का मत है, "योजना निर्माण के समय शैक्षिक आवश्यकताओं और उपलब्ध सपनों के सन्दर्भ में उद्देश्यों का निर्धारण होना चाहिए और समुदाय विशेष की अपेक्षाओं तथा शिक्षों के आवश्यकता को ध्यान में रखकर विशिष्ट कार्यक्रम और गतिविधियों का आयोजन करने हेतु कार्य इकाइयों का निर्माण किया जाना चाहिए।"

प्रशासन एवं शैक्षिक प्रशासन

प्रशासन एवं शैक्षिक प्रशासन 

Administration and Educational Administration 

अवधारणा (concept)

"शैक्षिक प्रबन्ध एक ऐसी सेवा करने वाली गतिविधि है, जिसके माध्यम से शैक्षिक प्रक्रिया के लक्ष्य प्रभावकारी ढंग से प्राप्त किए जा सकते हैं।"(Educational Management is a Service activity through with the objective of educational process effectively realised.)

प्रशासन से अभिप्राय (Meaning of Administration)

'प्रशासन' मूल रूप में संस्कृत का शब्द है। यह 'प्र'  उपसर्ग शास् धातु से आप बना है। इसका अर्थ है प्रकृष्ट या उत्कृष्ट रीति से शासन करना। आजकल शासन का अभिप्राय 'सरकार' से समझा जाता है, किन्तु इसका वास्तविक पुराना अर्थ निर्दश  देना, पथ-प्रदर्शन करना, आदेश या आज्ञा देना है। वैदिक युग में प्रशासन का प्रयोग इसी अर्थ में होता था। उस समय सोमादि यज्ञों में मुख्य पुरोहित अन्य सहायक पुरोहितों को यक्ष को सामग्री तथा अन्य कार्यों के बारे में आवश्यक निर्देश एवं आदेश देने का कार्य किया करते थे, उसे प्रशास्ता कहा जाता था। बाद में यह शासन कार्य में निर्देश देने वाले संचालक और राजा के लिए प्रयुक्त होने लगा।

'प्रशासन' की भाँति इसके लिए अंग्रेजी में 'एडमिनिस्ट्रेशन' (Administration) शब्द का प्रयोग किया जाता है। यह मूलतः 'एड' (Ad) उपसर्गपूर्वक सेवा करने का अर्थ देने वाली लेटिन की धातु 'Ministrere' से बना है। इसका मूल अभिप्राय एक व्यक्ति के द्वारा दूसरे व्यक्ति के हित की दृष्टि से उसको सेवा का कोई कार्य करना है, जैसे पादरी द्वारा किसी व्यक्ति को धार्मिक लाभ पहुंचाने के लिए धार्मिक संस्कार करना, न्यायाधीश द्वारा न्याय करना, डॉक्टर द्वारा बीमार को दवाई देना।  शब्दकोष के अनुसार 'प्रशासन' शब्द का अर्थ है 'कार्यों का प्रबन्ध करना अथवा लोगों की देखभाल करना।' एनसाइक्लोपीडिया ब्रिटानिका में प्रशासन शब्द की व्याख्या इस प्रकार की गयी है कि "यह कार्यों के प्रबन्ध अथवा उनको पूर्ण करने की एक क्रिया है।"

प्रशासन' का अर्थ प्रकृष्ट रीति से शासित अथवा अनुशासित करता है। इसका यह अभिप्राय है कि इस क्रिया में अनेक व्यक्तियों को विशिष्ट अनुशासन में रखते हुए उनसे एक निश्चित उद्देश्य की पूर्ति के लिए कार्य कराया जाता है। इससे यह स्पष्ट हो जाता है कि प्रशासन एक से अधिक व्यक्तियों द्वारा विशेष उद्देश्य की पूर्ति के लिए सहयोगी ढंग से किया जाने वाला कार्य है। प्रशासन के लिए अनेक व्यक्तियों का सहयोग, संगठन और सामाजिक हित का उद्देश्य अवश्य होना चाहिए।

साइमन के अनुसार, "अपने व्यापक रूप से प्रशासन की व्याख्या उन समस्त सामूहिक क्रियाओं से की जा सकती है जो सामान्य लक्ष्य की प्राप्ति के लिए सहयोगात्मक रूप में प्रस्तुत की जाती है।"

मार्क्स के अनुसार, “प्रशासन चैतन्य उद्देश्य की प्राप्ति के लिए निश्चयात्मक क्रिया है। यह उन वस्तुओं के एक संगठित प्रयत्न तथा साधनों का निश्चित प्रयोग है जिसको कि हम कार्यान्वित करवाना चाहते हैं।"

ब्रिटेनिका ऐनसाइक्लोपीडिया (Britainica Encyclopedia) के अनुसार- "Administration = Ad+ Minister अर्थात् कार्यों का निष्पादन एवं प्रबंधन करना।"

सी०वी० गुड (C.V. Good) के शब्दों में- “प्रशासन का तात्पर्य उन सभी तकनीकों एवं प्रक्रियाओंसे है जो निर्धारित नीतियों के अनुरूप किसी वैज्ञानिक संगठन के संचालन में प्रयुक्त की जाती हैं।"

रायबर्न (Rayburn) के अनुसार — “प्रशासन केवल व्यवस्थाओं, समय-तालिकाओं, कार्य-योजना, भवन का प्रकार, अभिलेखों आदि से सम्बन्धित नहीं है, बल्कि यह हमारे कार्य करने के दृष्टिकोण और बच्चों (जिनके साथ हम कार्य करते हैं) से सम्बन्धित है "

निगरों के अनुसार- "प्रशासन लक्ष्य की प्राप्ति के लिए मनुष्य तथा सामग्री दोनों का संगठन है।"

व्हाइट के अनुसार, "प्रशासन किसी विशिष्ट उद्देश्य अथवा लक्ष्य की प्राप्ति के लिए बहुत से व्यक्तियों के सम्बन्ध में निर्देश, नियन्त्रण तथा समन्वयीकरण की कला है। "

 लुथर गुलिक के अनुसार, "प्रशासन का सम्बन्ध कार्यों को सम्पन्न कराने से है जिससे कि निर्धारित लक्ष्य पूरा हो सके।"

शैक्षिक प्रशासन का अर्थ एवं परिभाषा

(Meaning and Definition of Education Administration)

शैक्षिक प्रशासन का अर्थ- शैक्षिक (विद्यालय) प्रशासन एक मानवीय प्रक्रिया है। शिक्षा का समुचित प्रबन्ध करना ही विद्यालय प्रशासन या शैक्षिक प्रशासन कहलाता है।

शिक्षा प्रशासन का अभिप्राय शिक्षा के प्रशासन से ही है। आधुनिक युग में शिक्षा का क्षेत्र अत्यन्त व्यापक हो गया है। शिक्षा पर सम्पूर्ण राष्ट्र के विकास का उत्तरदायित्व है। शिक्षा एक गतिशील प्रक्रिया है और इसका सम्बन्ध मानव विकास के लिए किये जाने वाले मानवीय प्रयासों से होता है। अतः शिक्षा का प्रसार तथा उससे मिलने वाला लाभ शिक्षा प्रशासन के अभिकरणों को कुशलता तथा गतिशीलता पर निर्भर करता है। विश्व में प्रजातांत्रिक तथा एकतान्त्रिक शासन प्रचलित है। जैसी इन शासनों की प्रकृति है, वैसे ही शैक्षिक प्रशासन की प्रकृति भी होती है। शिक्षा के समस्त पक्ष ऐसे ही मूल आधारों से प्रभावित होते हैं। शैक्षिक प्रशासन को आज केवल शिक्षा की व्यवस्था करना ही नहीं समझा जाता अपितु शिक्षा के सम्बन्ध में योजना बनाना, संगठन पर ध्यान देना, निर्देशन तथा पर्यवेक्षण आदि अनेक कार्यों से गहरा सम्बन्ध है। वास्तव में शैक्षिक प्रशासन का मुख्य उद्देश्य शिक्षा के उद्देश्यों की प्राप्ति करना है।

शैक्षिक प्रशासन के अन्तर्गत विद्यालय के विधिवत संचालन के थे सभी कार्य समाविष्ट होते हैं जिनमें प्रबन्ध, नियन्त्रण, व्यवस्था, पर्यवेक्षण एवं निर्देशन आदि आते हैं। इसमें योजना बनाना, प्रशासकीय कार्यवाही को निश्चित करना, सम्बन्धित कार्यकर्त्ताओं तथा विद्यार्थियों को आवश्यक सुविधाएँ एवं प्रोत्साहित उपलब्ध कराना, आवश्यक अभिलेख रखना, विद्यार्थी स्वशासन का संचालन करना, योग्यता के अनुसार कार्य का विभाजन करना, उनके कार्य आदि का समायोजन करना, विद्यालय और समाज के मध्य सहयोगपूर्ण सम्बन्ध स्थापित करना आदि प्रवृत्तियों का समावेश होता है। अतः विद्यालय प्रशासन को निम्न प्रकार से परिभाषित किया जा सकता है-

"शैक्षिक प्रशासन यह प्रक्रिया है जिसके द्वारा शैक्षिक कार्य में लगे कार्यकत्ताओं के प्रयासों में समन्वय एवं सामंजस्य स्थापित किया जाता है। उपयुक्त साज-सज्जा का इस प्रकार उपयोग किया जाता है कि जिससे मानवोचित गुणों का प्रभावशाली ढंग से विकास हो सके, ताकि वे राष्ट्र की आकांक्षा एवं आशा के योग्य बन सकें।"

 शैक्षिक प्रशासन की या शिक्षा प्रशासन की परिभाषाएँ-

पाल आर मोर्ट- "शिक्षा प्रशासन वह प्रभाव है, जो वांछित लक्ष्यों के सन्दर्भ में छात्रों को प्रभावित करता है, इसमें वह अन्य मानव समुदाय का उपयोग करता है, और शिक्षक इस कार्य में अभिकर्ता होता है। तीसरे समूह यानि जनता के लिये वह विभिन्न लक्ष्यों की पूर्ति हेतु कार्य करता है।"

केन्डल के शब्दो मे -"मूल रूप से शैक्षिक प्रशासन का उद्देश्य यही है तथा छात्रों को ऐसी परिस्थिति में एक साथ लाया जाए जिससे अधिकतम रूप से सफलतापूर्वक शिक्षा के उद्देश्यों को प्राप्त किया जा सके।"

एडम्स बुक के अनुसार, " प्रशासन वह क्षमता है जो अनेक प्रकार की संघर्षमयो सामाजिक शक्ति को एक संगठन में इस प्रकार सुन्दर ढंग से व्यवस्थित करता है जिससे वह एक सम्पूर्ण इकाई के रूप में क्रियाशील हो।"

ग्रेशम कैकूर के शब्दों में, "शिक्षा प्रशासन वह राजनीति सत्ता है जब दीर्घकालीन नीतियों तथा लक्ष्यों को निर्धारित कर दिये गये नीति नियमों के अनुकूल प्रशासन के मार्गदर्शन में दिन-प्रतिदिन लक्ष्य प्राप्ति हेतु समस्या को हल किया जाता है।"

ग्राहम वालफोर के अनुसार, "शिक्षा प्रशासन सही छात्रों को, सही शिक्षा, सही शिक्षकों से प्राप्त करने योग्य बनाता है। यह कार्य वह राज्य के साधनों की क्षमता के अनुसार करता है और छात्र इसका लाभ अपने प्रशिक्षण के दौरान उठाता है।"

जे. बी. सीयर्स के मतानुसार, "शिक्षा में प्रशासन शब्द सरकार से सम्बन्धित है। इससे सम्बन्धित शब्द अधीक्षक, पर्यवेक्षण, नियोजन, अनावधान, दिशा संगठन, नियन्त्रण, मार्गदर्शन एवं नियमन है।"

इन सभी परिभाषाओं से यह तो स्पष्ट हो जाता है कि शिक्षा प्रशासन, शिक्षा संस्थाओं के कुशल संचालन का तंत्र है। इस तंत्र में नीति नियमों के अनुपालन द्वारा वांछित लक्ष्य प्राप्त किये जाते हैं। उक्त परिभाषाओं का निष्कर्ष इस प्रकार प्रस्तुत किया जा सकता है-

(1) शिक्षा से सम्बन्धित सभी क्रियाओं एवं साधनों के सम्पूर्ण उपयोग, संगठन आदेश, जन सहयोग के द्वारा वांछित लक्ष्य प्राप्त करने में शिक्षा प्रशासन सहयोग देता है।

(2) शिक्षा विकास के पथ पर ले जाती है।

(3) शिक्षा प्रशासन, शिक्षा सम्बन्धी सभी प्रयासों एवं संस्थाओं को संगठित करने का प्रयास है। 

(4) शिक्षा प्रशासन का सम्बन्ध विभिन्न व्यक्तियों, शिक्षकों छात्रों, अभिभावकों, जनता के प्रयासों को समन्वित करने से है।

(5) शिक्षा के उद्देश्यों को प्राप्त करने में शिक्षा प्रशासन सहायक है।

शैक्षिक प्रशासन के लक्ष्य या उद्देश्य

(Aim of Education or Administration) 

उद्देश्य या लक्ष्य के विषय में लिखते हुए जॉन डीवी ने कहा है, कि "उद्देश्य के अन्तर्गत व्यवस्थापूर्ण गतिशीलता होती है, जिसे क्रिया द्वारा प्राप्त किया जाता है। इसके लिये हम क्रियाशील होते हैं।"

 इस सम्बन्ध एनसर्ट ने कहा है, "उद्देश्य वह बिन्दु है, जिसकी दिशा में कार्य किया जाता है। लक्ष्य या उद्देश्य को क्रिया द्वारा प्राप्त व्यवस्थित परिवर्तन भी कहते हैं।"

 इस दृष्टि से उद्देश्यों को रचना इसलिये की जाती है- 

(1) कार्य के दिशा निर्धारण हेतु, 

(2) कार्य में निश्चितता तथा सार्थकता हेतु, 

(3) समयबद्धता हेतु, 

(4) संभाव्य कठिनाइयों के निवारण हेतु, 

(5) वांछित परिणाम हेतु ।

 शैक्षिक प्रशासन का मुख्य लक्ष्य उन उद्देश्यों का निर्माण एवं प्राप्ति के प्रयास करना है, जो अच्छे नागरिक होने के लिये आवश्यक है। प्रशासन के उद्देश्यों का निर्धारण किसी प्रयोजन के लिये किया जाता है।

(1) बच्चों के सर्वागीण विकास के लिए उचित वातावरण तैयार करना—शैक्षिक प्रशासन शिक्षा सम्बन्धी कार्यों को सम्पन्न कराता है। शिक्षा के क्षेत्र में कार्यरत व्यक्तियों की सहायता करता है। इन सब के साथ-साथ शैक्षिक प्रशासन बच्चों के लिए ऐसा वातावरण तैयार करता है, जिसमें बालक का सम्पूर्ण विकास सम्भव हो सके। इस सन्दर्भ में कॅण्डल (Kandal) महोदय का मत है- "मूलतः शैक्षिक प्रशासन का उद्देश्य यह है कि अध्यापकों तथा छात्रों को ऐसी परिस्थितियों में एक-साथ लाया जाए जिससे की शिक्षा के उद्देश्य अधिक सफलतापूर्वक प्राप्त हो सकें।" "Fundamentally the purpose of educational administration is to bring pupils and teachers under such conditions as will more successfully promote the end of education."इस प्रकार आवश्यक साधन और सामग्री एकत्र करके उचित वातावरण बनाना शैक्षिक प्रशासन का प्रमुख उद्देश्य है।

(2) शैक्षिक प्रशासन का उद्देश्य है कि शिक्षा के क्षेत्र में कार्यरत व्यक्तियों को उनके उत्तरदायित्व का ज्ञान कराया जाए, बालक के व्यक्तित्व का विकास किया जाए और प्रत्येक व्यक्ति को उसकी क्षमता के अनुरूप कार्य करने के अवसर उपलब्ध कराए जाएं। इस दृष्टि से शैक्षिक प्रशासन प्रत्येक स्तर पर शैक्षिक कार्यक्रम, क्रियाकलाप और अन्य गतिविधियों का सुचारु रूप से संचालन करता है और कर्मचारियों की नियुक्ति, सेवा शर्ते तथा उनके प्रशिक्षण का निर्धारण करता है ताकि शिक्षा की सही दिशा में प्रगति हो सके। सही शिक्षा के सन्दर्भ में ग्राहम बैलफोर महोदय (Sir Graham Balfour) का मत है- "शैक्षिक प्रशासन का उद्देश्य सही बालकों को सही शिक्षकों द्वारा राज्य के सीमित साधनों के अन्तर्गत उपलब्ध व्यय से सही शिक्षा ले।

(3) शिक्षा को उत्पादन का साधन बनाना- शैक्षिक प्रशासन शिक्षा को उत्पादन का साधन बनाने में सहायता करता है। फलस्वरूप किसी संस्था के छात्रों की  संख्या में  वृद्धि होती है।

(4) शिक्षा को सुनिश्चित योजना और सुनियोजित रूप प्रदान करना—शैक्षिक प्रशासन शिक्षा को सुनियोजित रूप प्रदान करने में सहायता करता है। यह सुनिश्चित योजना का निर्माण करता है ताकि शिक्षा समाज के अनुरूप संचालित हो सके और राज्य एवं सरकार की शिक्षा नीतियों का क्रियान्वयन सही रूप में हो सके। सुनियोजन के सन्दर्भ में आर्थर वी० मोहिल्मन (Arthur B. Mohilman) का कथन है— "शिक्षा का कार्य निश्चित संगठन अथवा सुनिश्चित योजना, विधियों, व्यक्तियों तथा आर्थिक साधनों के माध्यम से चलना चाहिए।" "Education must function through a definite organization or structure of plans,procedures, personnel, material, plant and finance. "

(5) शिक्षा की आवश्यकताओं के अनुरूप निर्णय लेना एवं शिक्षा सम्बन्धी नीतियों का निर्धारण तथा क्रियान्वयन करना— शैक्षिक प्रशासन का उद्देश्य है कि  महोदय सीयर्स ( B. Seares) का कथन है- "प्रत्येक प्रशासनिक निर्णय तथा प्रत्येक कार्य शैक्षिक आवश्यकताओं के अनुरूप लेना अत्यन्त आवश्यक है।""

(6) प्रजातान्त्रिक दृष्टिकोण विकसित करना—शैक्षिक प्रशासन का उद्देश्य छात्रों एवं कर्मचारियों क में श्रेष्ठ नागरिकता, धर्म-निरपेक्षता एवं समानता की भावना का विकास करना है। यह भावना प्रजातान्त्रिक दृष्टिकोण का विकास करती है तथा शिक्षण संस्थाओं के व्यक्तियों में पारम्परिक सहयोग और स्वशासन क प्रशिक्षण प्रदान करती है। शिक्षा के नवीन उद्देश्यों, मूल्यों, मान्यताओं, सिद्धान्तों आदि के साथ सामंजस्य स्थापित की करती है। इस प्रकार यह दृष्टिकोण शिक्षा सम्बन्धी नवीन उत्तरदायित्वों को स्वीकार करना तथा उनका उचित निर्वाह करने के लिए तैयार करता है ताकि जनतन्त्रीय व्यवस्था सफल हो सके। प्रजातन्त्र के सन्दर्भ में के०जी० सैयदेन महोदय का मत है— आज के युग में विद्यालय को प्रजातन्त्र के सिद्धान्तों के अनुसार चलाया जाना चाहिए। यदि यह सिद्धान्त ही ओझल हो गया तो प्रशासन तथा निरीक्षण का महत्त्व ही समाप्त हो जाता है।"

(7) छात्रों की रुचियों एवं अभिवृत्तियों में परिवर्तन लाना - शैक्षिक प्रशासन का कार्य केवल समय प विभाग चक्र बनाना ही नहीं है अपितु छात्रों की अभिवृत्तियों में परिवर्तन लाना भी है। इस सन्दर्भ में पी०सी० रेन (P. C. Ren) महोदय का कथन है- "शैक्षिक प्रशासन का उद्देश्य छात्रों के लाभ हेतु विद्यालय बनाने, उनकी अन्तर्निहित है क्षमताओं को प्रशिक्षित करने, उनका मानसिक विकास एवं दृष्टिकोण व्यापक बनाना है। यह छात्रों को स्वयं के प्रति है समुदाय और राज्य के प्रति कर्तव्यपरायण बनाता है और वारित्रिक विकास कर स्वास्थ्य एवं शक्ति प्रदान करता है।"

Maxims of English Teaching

Maxims of Teaching

Maxims of teaching are of great importance and useful to get the positive out-comes of teaching-learning process. Maxims of teachings are the formulas and general rules of Teaching drawn from experiences of teachers and educationists and psychologists. The main maxims of Teaching English are given below:

1. From Indefinite to Definite

An English teacher should provide the opportunity for a new experiences. Because, in the beginning, there exists an ambiguity, uncertainty and doubtfulness in the concepts of a child he gets the clarity in his conceptions and thoughts when he gets experiences from the society. He verifies his unmatured concepts on the testimony of experience.

2. From Whole to Part

The knowledge of a thing should not be given in part first but it should be given as a whole. The full concept of a thing should understood by the learners and then the knowledge of its parts should be given.

3. From Known to Unknown

The English teacher should proceed his teaching of English language from unknown. He should impart new knowledge of language based on the previous knowledge of the students which is known to them.

4. From Psychological to Logical

The formation of curriculum syllabus, text-books and selection and gradation of language materials teaching techniques and audio-visual-aids should be based on child psychology. The logical base of teaching language comes later on.

5. From Particular to General 

A teacher should proceed his teaching with particular examples and illustrations in the beginning and then he should give general illustration and examples in his teaching.

6. From Real to Unreal 

In teaching-learning process a teacher should use the real object in his teaching in the beginning. After that he may use the unreal of representative objects in later stage.

7. From Empirical to Rational 

First of all our beginners should be introduced with the empirical principles and direct truth. After that the rational thinking should be developed. The rational thinking is a logical thinking or reasoning based on empirical truths and principles testified by experiments.

8. From Simple to Complex 

The teacher of English language should impart the knowledge of simple matter and content first and then difficult matter should be dealt with later on.

9. From Concrete to Abstract 

The abstract thoughts are imaginative, doubtful and difficult to understand for the beginners. Therefore, the learners should be given the knowledge of concrete object because they are familiar with these concrete objects.

10. From Analysis to Synthesis 

In analysis, we divided the topic into so many parts and do the part-wise analysis of the topic of the content. In synthesis, we join the parts into the whole. In analysis, the learner understands part-wise concept in a better way. Analysis is a difficult process to understand.

11. From Inductive to Deductive

There are two teaching techniques to make the English lesson a success

(i) Inductive Technique

(ii) Deductive Technique

Both the techniques are used in the direct method of Teaching English language.

In the Inductive technique of teaching, the learners get themselves associated with the concept revealed and clarified by the English teacher giving practical examples and illustration. We proceed from examples to generalization. When a concept is developed about the knowledge through these examples. We reach to the generalization of the rule of the content.

Therefore, we proceed from examples and illustration to generalization in Inductive technique of teaching. Inductive technique of teaching very useful for the technique of beginners. They do not understand the rules. technique They understand these rules through simple and practical examples and illustrations related to their lives. So this method or approach or is the best one for our beginners to make them understand the language items in an easier way.

Deductive technique of teaching is useful for the senior classes. In Inductive technique, we try to discover new knowledge on our teaching through illustrations, examples and experiments, Whereas, in deductive method, we prove the rules and principles of a particular part of knowledge of the subject by doing experiments and giving examples and illustrations.

We proceed from generalization to examples. It means the teacher tells the generalization of the rule of the content matter first and then he proves the generalized rule by giving examples and illustrations during his teaching language.

Aims of Education in Contemporary Indian Society

Aims of Education in Contemporary Indian Society

Indian education has the following aims at present :

(1) Physical development.

(2) Mental development.

(3) Individual and social development and leadership education.

(4) Development of cultural tolerance. 

(5) Moral and character development.

(6) Vocational development.

(7) Education for democracy and democratic citizenship. 

(8) Population education, environmental education, modernisation of the country, national integration and international understanding, and

(9) Development of religious tolerance.

We shall now present the four aims of education which are democracy, socialism, secularism and national values:

1. Education of Democracy: At one time, there was monarchy in the world. In 1789, a revolution occurred in France against the than prevalent government system and in favour of the demand for freedom, equality and brotherhood. This revolution gave forth a new system of governance called democracy. Generally, by democracy is meant that system in which the administration of the state is run by their elected representatives, and not run by a particular individual. At present, there is so much of variation in the democratic system of different countries that it becomes difficult define it in a uniform statement. However, there also exists a similarity, and that remember the fact that it is based on three principles of freedom, equality and brotherhood the Indian democracy, three more principles have been added which are socialism, secularism and justice. Therefore, Indian democracy can be defined as follows:  Indian democracy is that political system in which the government is run by the people elected by the people, and which is based on the six principles of freedom, equality, brotherhood, socialism, secularism and justice.

Now, the moot point is how should children be educated in democracy For it, it becomes incumbent that right from the beginning, the following should be realized :

(1) The entire environment and working system of the schools should be democratic.

(2) There should be freedom of thought and freedom of expression for children in the schools, though without causing interference to others freedom. 

(3) The individuality of all children should be respected in schools, they should not be discriminated on grounds of caste, religion, economic status or sex all of them should be meted out equal treatment.

(4) There should prevail the spirit of "we' among managers, principals, teachers and other staff members of the schools, they should all behave themselves with others with love, sympathy and cooperation; and all of them should endeavour for the progress of the schools.

(5) Children of all castes, religions and economic statuses should be admitted in the schools; and all of them should be given opportunities for progress and advancement.

(6) Children should not be discriminated on grounds of religion in schools, they should not be forced for education of a particular religion, and religious tolerance should be cultivated in them.

(7) All rules formed in the schools should be founded on the basic spirit of democracy, they should be same for all, and the children should be treated as per these rules.

2. Development of Socialistic Viewpoint: Socailism is one of the six principles of our democracy. In India, socialism has a different connotation. At present, socialism is the democratic system of governance in the country. Our democracy is opposed to any class distinction on grounds of caste, religion and sex etc. It is also opposed to the class distinction between the rich and the poor, however, it does not support any violent struggle for eradication of capitalism. It supports the principle of Sarvodaya as propounded by Gandhiji, and believes in eradication of class distinction through peaceful means. 

Thus Indian socialism is that socialism based on democratic principles and Gandhiji's Sarvodaya philosophy which does not distinguish between individual and individual on grounds of caste, religion and economic status etc., and supports peaceful means to remove economic disparity in place of using power and violent activity.

Now, the moot point is how to achieve this aim of education, and how socialist viewpoint can be cultivated in children. For this, the following become essential:

(1) The entire form of schools should be democratic. 

(2) Individuality of children should be respected in schools.

(3) No discrimination should be practised against children on any grounds of caste, religion, economic status or sex etc., all should be treated equally. 

(4) All children in schools should be provided with equal opportunities for their development.

(5) Students should not be exploited in schools, in any way at any level and under any circumstances.

(6) There should be a specific dress for students in schools.

(7) In schools, at least in primary and upper primary schools, all students should have midday meals together. 

3. Cultivation of Spirit of Secularism:  At present, we have a democratic system of government in our country. Democracy does not discriminate between man and man on grounds of caste, religion, sex etc., in its essence, it is unbiased so far as caste, culture, religion and sex are concerned. However, in order to eradicate the disputes arising in the name of religion, the 42nd Constitutional Amendment in 1976 added the word 'secularism' to the preamble of the Constitution of India in order to further explain the spirit of secularism. Under the Constitution, the Parliament does not have the right to make any particular religion as the state religion, nor can it force any religion on people, nor can it take a religion as the basis for making a national law. This fact has been repeated in several articles of the Constitution in diverse ways. 

Thus Secularism, in Indian context, means that the state will not be based on any religion directly or indirectly, and it will not discriminate people on grounds of religion: people will have freedom to profess and propagate their religions without interfering in other religions. 

The moot point is how this aim of education can be achieved, how the spint of secularism can be inculcated in children. For this, the following become essential :

(1) The schools should not be based on any particular religion; education of any particular religion should not be forced on the students in the schools.

(2) No discrimination should be exercised in schools in the name of religion. 

(3) The Government of India speaks of religion-less education in the name of secularism, yet in our view, the life stories of the chief proponents of the main religions should be included in the language textbooks at the upper primary level, as Mahavir, Buddha, Christ, Muhammad and Swami Dayananda. This will help develop religious tolerance and secularis.

(4) The government prohibits religious education in schools in the name of secularism, yet in our view, there should be a provision for instruction of basic principles of all chief religions of the world, especially those of India, but it should not be forced. This will help develop religious tolerance and secularism. 

(5) The school galleries should be decorated with the proponents of chief religions of the world. This will help cultivate religious tolerance and secularism.

4. Cultivation of National Values: By value is meant utility, desirability. importance. Generally, the ideals and principles that are accepted in a society are called the values of that society. However, in reality, the sense of value is somewhat different from this. We are aware that each society has its own culture as well as its own beliefs, ideals, principles, moral laws and behaviour norms, and people of the society attach importance to them according to their likes and dislikes, and they determine their behaviour on the basis of these. Thus, the beliefs, ideals, moral laws and behaviour norms are not values by themselves, rather when people of a society start to attach importance to them, and behave themselves according to them, they become the values of the society. 

In other words : The beliefs, ideals, principles, moral laws and behaviour norms of any society which are attached importance by the people and by which their behaviour is directed and controlled, are the values of that society and/or its people.

Now let us consider national values in place of social values. At present, we have the democratic system of government, and it is based on six basic principles: freedom, equality, fraternity, socialism, secularism and justice. Our nation believes in these principles, and determines its behaviour on the basis of these principles, and each individual of the nation is expected to behave himself on the bases of these principles.

The basic principles of the nation: freedom, equality, fraternity, socialism, secularism and justice by which the behaviour of the citizens is guided and controlled are our national values.

This signifies the following :

(1) Children should be given freedom to think and express themselves in schools. 

(2) All children should be considered equal in the schools, they should be treated equally. 

(3) All children should be treated with love, sympathy and cooperation in school attachment should be displayed for all. 

(4) In schools, children should not be discriminated on the basis of caste, religion economic status, sex etc., and they should be respected and treated equally 

(5) There should be a uniform dress and rules for all children in schools, and should be mandatory for all to abide by them. 

(6) No religious education should be imparted in schools by force.

(7) When children start to behave themselves according to national value knowingly or unknowingly, they should be given clear knowledge of nation values and the same should be linked with their sentiments, and they should be trained to determine and display their behaviour on the bases of these value This work can be undertaken at the secondary level; it is the time when children possess logic and power to distinguish between right and wrong.

Meaning, Definition and Need of Definite Aims of Education, Main Aims of Education

Aims of Education in Contemporary Indian Society

Meaning and Definition of Aims of Education

Man is a progressive being. He wants to advance and rise at all times. Whatever he wants to achieve in his life, its ideal condition is called the aim. This ideal condition a cannot be defined in limits. Aim indicates an ideal condition which cannot be limited to It has the same meaning in the field of education, it indicates towards a higher direction o that is, such an ideal situations which cannot be limited. We can define it as follows :

An aim of education is such a statement which indicates an ideal condition of desirable change, such an ideal condition which cannot be bound in limits. 

Distinction between Aims and Objectives

Though aim and objective are synonym, but they are related with each other c as whole and part. An aim indicates an ideal condition, such ideal condition which o cannot be bound in limits. On the contrary, an objective has specified limit, it is achievable in itself. Generally, several objectives are determined for the achievement of an aim, and these objectives are realized for the achievement of that aim. 

Need of Definite Aims of Education

Education is a social process that goes on lifelong. By it a society acquaints its members by its previously acquired civilization and culture and enables them to effect continuous development in their civilization and culture. If the society has not a clear picture before itself what it has to teach to its next generation and what it has not to teach, its education cannot be run properly. The provision of formal education is done for the achievement of specified aims. In the absence of specified and clear aims this education cannot be imagined. Aimless education is meaningless in itself. The need of definite aims of education is evident from the following factors:

1. Provision of Formal Education 

2. Provision of Curriculum and Teaching Methods

3. Operation of Education Properly

4. Enthusiasm in Vigour

5. Utilization of Time and Energy

Main Aims of Education

The real fact is that there are no aims of education in itself, the aims of a society are the aims of education too. Because the aims of different societies are different, so the aims of their education too are different. Not only this, but they continue to change with the time and place. It is obvious that they cannot be limited. So, they cannot be analysed separately. Of course, they can be put in certain general classes We have attempted to classify the aims of education of any society or country under the nine headings, and have also endeavoured to analyse the changes that occur in them due to change in time and place

[I] Physical Development 

Physical development is the universal and perennial aim of education. It is another thing that it has been accepted in different forms in different societies at different times. For example, materialistic societies consider the body as an end, they believe that healthy body is the first pleasure. On the contrary, spiritualistic societies consider the body as a means; they believe that the healthy body is the means for higher meditation and self-realization.

At present in the field of education, by physical development of the children is meant strengthening the muscles and different organs of the body of the children, development and training of their organs of action and perception and development and sublimation of their instincts. For it, asanas, exercises and sports are arranged, they are given the opportunities or the use of their sense organs, they are taught the methods to keep away to diseases, and they are made aware for proper diagnosis and treatment in case of becoming ill.

[II] Mental Development

This is also a universal and perennial aim of education, but it has been taken in different forms by different people. In ancient India, by mental development was meant enhancement of knowledge. There was a time when the slogan of 'knowledge for knowledge' was given in our country. The similar tale can be seen in other countries too In the present times, the educationists who believe in faculty psychology take mental development as the development of these faculties such as memory, observation, imagination and reasoning of the children. Some scholars consider the development of reasoning as mental development while some others include intellectual development in it. Intellect is the power of taking decision of true and false by reasoning on the basis of clear knowledge and experience. It has given forth the slogan of education For mental and intellectual development.

In present times, by mental development in the field of education is meant the knowledge of language for communication of ideas, knowledge of different subjects for the knowledge of material and spiritual world, development of mental faculties, such as- memory, observation, imagination, logic, thinking, meditation, generalization and decision-taking, etc., training in distinguishing truth and untruth on the basis of reasoning, development of their faculty of logic, and to protect them from mental illnesses (fear, pessimism, complexes, etc.) and to produce in them mental stimulators (fearlessness, optimism and self-confidence, etc.). And for this all, children are given opportunities for free expression. By it, the communication of thoughts and language development take place simultaneously. The knowledge of different subjects and training in different activities are helpful in the intellectual development of the children. In present times, the children are given opportunities for learning by doing. It brings about the development of their mental powers, such as- memory, observation, imagination and logic, etc. The children are behaved with love and sympathy, so they are protected from fear, they become fearless, they are protected from pessimism, they become optimists, they are protected from complexes, they become self-confident.

[III] Social Development

Man is a social being. The psychologists have found out that he has the instinct of gregariousnes which inspires him to live in group. In group, sometimes he loves others and sometimes hates them, sometimes he shows sympathy towards others, and sometimes enmity; and sometimes he cooperates with others and sometimes he does not. Generally people term the development of feelings of love, sympathy cooperation as social development. The sociologists have explained that each person learns the language, living style, customs and conduct of his society to adjust in the society. Some people call the training in these activities as social development, but in the terminology or sociology it is socialization. Moreover, if a person would have only adjusted in his society, he would have not achieved this development. He has all the power to understand the good and evil of his society, and he tries to accept the good and to do away with the evil, and in sociological terminology, it is call social change.  All these are included in the periphery of social development.

It is very essential to bring about social development of the children. Without social development the children can neither adjust in their society, nor can bring about, social change. The social development of persons is also necessary in order to accept the social changes.

However, only bringing about social development of the children does not exhaust the functions of education. It will have to effect all types of physical, mental cultural, moral, character, vocational and spiritual development of children.

[IV] Cultural Development

Generally, whatever the members of a society have thought, understood and done good is called the culture of that society. Sociologists call all physical or material achievements as material culture and ideological achievements as non-material culture.

In our view by the culture of a society is meant that specific living style, eating habits, customs, art, skill, music, dance, Language, literature, religion and philosophy in which it has faith and all its members consider their culture as the supreme and conduct themselves according to it, and thus the culture of a society is preserved. Besides, the intellectual people of each society experience new things, they understand the reality of their experiences by their reasoning power and when it is felt necessary, they negate the untruth and propound new truths. Thus, development in a society's culture takes place However, it has been seen that any culture does not leave its original or fundamental form, it is its greatest feature.

Each society has its own culture and it transmits it to the next generation. It is a universal and perennial fact. So it is but natural for any society to have the cultural development of its children as one of the aim of education.

[V] Moral and Character Development

Moral and character development is the chief aim of education. Every society has its certain principles and rules of conduct. Morality and character are inseparable. One cannot be thought of in the absence of another. However, in different disciplines, morality and character have been analysed differently. The humanists consider conduct as favourable to society in the form of  morality and character. Psychologists accept the group of good habits and firm will power as character. Spiritualists consider self-refrain and conduct favourable to religion as morality and character. Literature takes abidance by the social rules as morality and character. Those who do not abide by morality have their own character. A robber has his own unique character, it is another thing whether it is good or bad.

In the field of education, when we speak of moral and character development we mean that the society takes its children forward to the abidance by conduct rule with firm will power. And conduct depends on the geographical situation, philosophical ideology, social structure, political system, economic system, scientific progress and material and spiritual achievements. In religious societies, religion is the basis o morality. And because most of the people in the world adhere to one or the other religion, their conduct is based on their respective religions, so generally people d not distinguish between religion and morality. In our view too, morality based o religion is the true morality; but there is certain degree of helplessness in our country There are several religions and communities in our country. We cannot impart the education of morality as based on any one specific religion

[VI] Vocational Development

The vocational aim of education is meant to train the children, according to their interests, aptitudes, abilities and needs, in certain production works, such as Deming, or in certain professions such as-shopkeeping, teaching, law and medicine practice, or in certain small industry, such as weaving, spinning, carpentry, ironsmithery, leather work, or providing them technological, management and administration education for running the heavy industries.

Vocational aim of education is an important aim of education. The most basic needs of man include bread, cloth and shelter. Education should fulfill our basic needs. The development of art, literature and music also requires money. In the present times, there is no limit to the physical needs and as such, we need much money. We can get this money by production or industry. If we educate the children in production or industry, then they will take its benefit, and it will certainly eradicate unemployment and poverty, and our country will become prosperous. 

[VII] Education of Political System and Citizenship

In the field of education, by the education of political system is meant to acquaint the people with the qualities of the political system of the country. But the knowledge of a political system has no meaning until the citizens have loyalty towards it and conduct themselves according to it. The rights and duties of the citizens in: country's political system are definite. The education of citizenship aims at inspiring the citizens to acquaint themselves with their rights and duties and to conduct themselves accordingly. 

In the present times, it is a compulsory aim of education in all the countries of the world. By it a nation develops its citizens according to its beliefs and acquaint them with their rights and duties and encourages them to conduct themselves accordingly. It makes the citizens aware of their duties towards the country, and the become active for its progress. For the development of national integration, the education of political system and citizenship is essential.

[VIII] Realization of the Needs and Aspirations of the Nation

There are so many countries in the world, and each of them has numerous small and large societies. These countries have their specific needs. Besides, they have their own aspirations, and these needs and aspirations keep changing. For example. class difference is increasing in our society, and we aspire that our society becomes a classless society, and our country is backward and we have the aspiration to make it advanced, and for these, we are taking the help of education. 

In the field of education, by realization of national needs and aspirations is meant the arrangement of such education by which needs and aspirations of the country are realized. 

Education is the fundamental means of human development. So it is necessary that it should prepare citizens and society for the solution of prevalent problems and fulfillment of aspirations of the individual and society, and it should be its contemporary aim.

 [IX] Spiritual Development

This is the supreme aim of education. It is another thing that there is no provision for it in the education controlled by state, and if it exists in some states, it is in the form of education of a particular religion. Most of the people of the world consider man as the sum total of body, mind and soul. The development of body and mind are the two foremost aims of education. Besides, man is a social being too. So they also talk about his social, cultural, moral and character development. Man has certain physical, mental and social needs for the realization of which all of us think of vocational development. However, spiritual development has been left out between, we fail to understand why.

By spiritual development in the field of education is meant that man has to be acquainted with the reality of the whole universe, he has to be acquainted with his self-power and he has to be acquainted with the abstract omnipotent existence. 

Agencies of Education: Formal, Informal and Non-Formal

Agencies of Education: Formal, Informal and Non-Formal

Meaning and Definition of Agencies of Education 

Education is a social process. The social group or organization of which the individual is a member, he takes part in its social consciousness, and as a result of this interaction, his behaviour is influenced. These social groups or organizations that take forward the educational process are called agencies of education. By the word agent is meant worker, representative, broker or means. From this viewpoint, agency should mean a place where an agent works. But by agencies of education is meant such groups or organizations which help individuals in their education directly or indirectly. 

In the words of B.D. Bhatia : 

"Society has developed a number of specialized institutions to carry out the functions of education. These institutions are known as the agencies of education."

But the fact is that almost all social groups and organizations, whether they have been constituted to carry out educational task or any other tasks, they certainly influence the education of people directly or indirectly. Agencies of education should be defined as follows : "By agencies of education is meant those social groups and organizations which help in the education of people in any way, directly or indirectly."

Classification of Agencies of Education

Education is a social process that is conducted in all social groups and organizations knowingly or unknowingly. From educational viewpoint, all these groups and organizations are called agencies of education. They are so many and numerous in themselves that it is difficult to classify them. But some educationists have attempted to classify them keeping the chief agencies of education in view. Of them, three chief classes are discussed here.

Formal, Informal and Non-Formal  Agencies of Education

Most scholars have classified agencies of education into two parts formal and informal. Some scholars have called the agencies as different from these two as non-formal.

From etymological viewpoint, the agencies that arrange formal education should be called formal agencies; those that arrange non-formal education should be called non-formal agencies and those that arrange informal education should be called informal agencies. But from this viewpoint, all agencies will be included in all the three classes. For example, family is chiefly an informal agency of education, but it also helps in non-formal and formal education. In fact, this classification has been done on this basis whether an agency has been constituted for education of the children or adults, or with some other purpose.

Formal Agencies of Education

Formal agencies of education are those social groups or organizations which the society constitutes especially for education; such as education department of the government and teaching institutions (schools, colleges and universities). The education that is arranged by these agencies, its aim, curriculum and teaching methods are specified. The students receive education under the care and guidance of teachers. In one sentence, we can say that these agencies run education in a planned manner.

The society or state realizes its aims through these agencies. In the absence of formal agencies, it is not possible to transfer all acquired attributes and achievements in a complex society to its next generation. These agencies help the children in learning which they cannot learn through informal agencies. It is essential to constitute these agencies for science and technology education. Not only this, they are required to systematize and give proper direction to the knowledge and conduct learned from informal agencies.

But these agencies have their own limitations. The education of children in the age group of 1-3 years cannot be made by them. Difficulty is also faced in arranging education for children in the age group of 3-5 years, and it is the time when the foundation of child's personality is laid. Besides, another shortcoming of these agencies is that they generally lay emphasis on bookish knowledge and comparatively less on code of conduct. Sometimes they think that their duty is to complete the specified curriculum only, and in such a case, it becomes the end in place of being a means.

Informal Agencies of Education 

Informal agencies of education are those social groups or organizations that are constituted of their own under the social structure, and which have no aim of arranging formal or non-formal education, but they influence the education of the children, youths and adults knowingly or unknowingly, such as family, community and religious institutions, etc. The education conducted in these agencies has no specific aims, curriculum or teaching methods. Here the people learn naturally by coming in contact with each other.

Much of education of the people is conducted in these agencies, so they an very important. Formal agencies have provision of purposeful education, but the children receive education in behaviour and code of conduct by informal agencies They have a great significance in the education of language, lifestyle and eating manners, customs and traditions and conduct. These agencies significantly contribute in the preservation and development of civilization and culture. American educationist in John Dewey considered these agencies as accidental, natural and significant. According to him, real education of the children is conducted in these institutions, their intelligence develops, their imagination sharpens and they adjust in the society. These agencies also construct formal agencies of education.

But informal agencies too have their own limitations. By them systematized education cannot be provided. Modern social life has become so complex that we cannot understand it without providing systematized education. The education of different skill cannot be imparted by these informal agencies. Formal agencies are needed for vocational and industrial education too.

Non-Formal Agencies of Education

Non-formal agencies of education are those social groups or organizations that provide non-formal education for children, youths and adults. It is clear that the education run by these agencies, have generally specified aims, curriculum and teaching methods, etc.

The children that are unable to receive formal education and the illiterates whe want to study, the non-formal agencies of education play a vital role in their education They also contribute in providing update knowledge to the literate youths and adults in their respective fields. The truth remains that mass education, adult education and continuing education are conducted through these non-formal agencies of education.

Some scholars call libraries, reading rooms and playgrounds as formal agencies, while some call them informal agencies.

Balance in Formal, Informal and Non-Formal Agencies 

All the three formal, non-formal and informal agencies of education play a vital role in the development of a child. If we think we find that child's education begins at home. We are also aware of the influence of family, neighbourhood and other social groups in his education. Here we think it sufficient to mention that these institutions of education have vital role to play in the child's education and the credit for the arrangement of formal agencies goes to them. Their importance in the field of education should be accepted.

On the other hand, our social development has arrived at a very complex station. We have generally made unprecedented progress in almost all fields. We need systematized education for understanding them. Systematized education is provided by formal agencies, especially by schools Schools provide equal opportunities to all children to develop according to their interest, aptitude and needs.

But formal and non-formal agencies cannot succeed in their task until informal agencies of education do not help them. In the present age, all the three of formal, non-formal and informal types of agencies of education have their own significance. The success of each of them depends on every other. They should work in cooperation. If formal, non-formal and informal agencies cooperate with each other, our education system would be effective and fruitful. We should make efforts for it.

Meaning and Nature of Education (Education in Contemporary Indian Society)

Meaning and Nature of Education

Meaning of Education

Education is the fundamental means of human development. By it the innate powers of human beings are developed, their knowledge and skills are enhanced, their behaviour is changed and they are made civilized and cultured citizens. And this task begins right from the birth of man. Just a few days after the birth of the child, his parents and other members of the family start to teach him to hear and to speak. When he grows a little more, he is taught the methods of sitting, standing, moving, eating and social conduct. When he attains the age of three-four years, he is taught how to read and write. At this age, he is also sent to school. In the school, his education is organized in a very proper manner. Besides the school, he is also taught in his family and community. And this practice of teaching-learning continues even after the child leaves the school, and it goes on over the whole life. If we see it in its extensive form, the process of education in the society continues forever. In its real sense, the purposeful process of teaching and learning that goes on forever in the society is education.

The etymological meaning of education

The etymological meaning of education is just the same. By it is meant the process of teaching and learning. The word 'education' has been derived from the Latin word "educatum', which is made by the joining of 'e' and 'duco'. 'E' means 'from inside' and 'duco' means 'to proceed forward' So, the word 'education' implies 'expression of internal faculties of the child towards outside'

In analyzing the form of education, the chief role has been played by philosophers, sociologists, political scientists, economists, psychologists and scientists. Here is a brief description of their view points.

Philosophical Concept of Education 

Man is the focal point of philosophers. They attempt to know the real form of man and to determine the ultimate aim of his life. The philosophers are also interested in determining the means for the attainment of ultimate aim of human life, and they consider education as necessary for their knowledge and training. Thus, in the viewpoint of philosophers, education is a means of attaining the ultimate aim of human life. 

According to Jagadguru Shankaracharya :

"Sa vidya ya vimuktaya. (Education is what emancipates.)"

The Indian philosopher Swami Vivekananda has considered man as perfect by birth and has laid emphasis on enabling him to experience this perfection with the help of education. 

In his words : "Education is manifestation of perfection already present in man."

Mahatma Gandhi has laid equal emphasis on the development of all the three aspects of man body, mind and soul. 

In his words : "By education I mean an all-round drawing out of the best in child and man-body, mind and spirit." 

According to the Greek philosopher Plato : "Education consists in giving to the body and soul all the perfection to which they are susceptible."      

Plato's pupil, Aristotle has defined education in the following way : "Education is the creation of a sound mind in a sound body."

Sociological Concept of Education

The focal point of sociologists is society. They see and understand the individual in the context of society. They consider education as the means of development of the individuals and of the society. They have divulged the following facts regarding the nature of education :

1. Education is a Social Process: The sociologists have clarified that when social interaction takes place between two or more people they are influenced by each other's language, thoughts and conduct. The process of this influence is called learning. and when this task is done with certain aims in view, it is called education. 

2. Education is a Continuous Process: The education continues forever in the society. Man's education begins a few days after his birth and continues right up to the end of his life. The members of the society continue to exhaust, but its education process goes on generation after generation. It does never take a rest. Thus, continuity is its second feature.

3. Education is a Bipolar Process: Sociologists have clarified that in the process  of education, one influences and the other is influenced. So it is clear that education is a bipolar process. According to them, the two poles of education are the one that influences (teacher) and the other that is influenced (pupil). The American educationist John Dewey too has considered two poles of education one, psychological and the other social. By psychological aspect he means the interest, aptitude and ability of the learner, and by the social aspect he means his social environment. 

4. Education is the Process of Development: The innate behaviour of man a slike an animal Education is used to amend and mould his behaviour. If we look art with a wider viewpoint main secures his experiences with the help of education and hands them over to the next generation. On the basis of this knowledge, the next generation gies further and adds to it its own experiences and thoughts. Thus, the social con and culture develop. It is not possible in the absence of education. It is clear that education is a process of development. We should understand one thing here that each creature in the world learns to eat and speak, etc while being in the company of his like beings by imitating them and following them. 

5. Education is a Dynamic Process: By education man effects continuous development in his civilization and culture. For this development, one generation transfers its knowledge and skill to the next generation. For this transfer, each society makes arrangement of school education. So, the aims, curriculum and teaching methods of specific school education are generally definite But as the changes occur in the society, education accepts those changes and moves forward. Thus, its aims, curriculum and teaching methods etc. change according to the needs of the society. This is its dynamism. If education would have not been dynamic, we could have not proceeded on the path of development.

Political Concept of Education

The focal point of political scientists is the state and its political system they look and understand the individual and society, both in the context of state and its political system. They consider education as the means of nation building. A nation is built with able citizens and able citizens are made by education. In their view : Real education is that which makes able citizens.

Economic Concept of Education

The basic point of economists is economic resources and systems. They think and understand all human activities in the context of economy They accept education as a productive activity. In their view, education besides being an object of consumption, it is also a component of production. The results of researches show that the productive capability and organisational ability of an educated man is comparatively more than an uneducated man, and it is so much more that the additional benefit accruing from it is much more than the expenditure done on his education. So, the economists accept education in the form of economic investment. In their view :

Education is an economic investment by which the production and organisational skills of an individual are developed and thus, the productive capability of the individual, society and that of nation is increased and their economic development is effected. 

Psychological Concept of Education

By this point of Indian Yoga psychology is man's outer form and inner-solf both. In his external form, it studies his organs of action and perception, and in his inner-self, it studies his consciousness (mind, intellect and ego). In its view : Education is the training of external organs and inner-self of man.

The western psychologists give importance the body, mind and behaviour of man. They have not been able to discover the basic components of his inner-self mind. intellect and ego as yet. In their viewpoint, man is a psycho-physical creature who takes birth with certain innate faculties and his development depends on these faculties themselves. So education should effect the development of these faculties first. 

Pestalozzi opines : "Education is a natural, harmonious and progressive development of man's innate powers."

Froebel has defined :  "Education is a process by which a child makes its internal external."

Scientific Concept of Education

The focal point of scientists is the physical world and its objects and activities They look at any object or activity objectively. As far as the innate faculties of man are concemed, they are in agreement with psychology, however, so far as it relates to human behaviour, they accept the sociological facts. They accept education as a means of development of the inner faculties in accordance with outer life. 

In the words Herbert Spencer : "Education means establishment of coordination between the inherent  powers and the outer life." 

The True Concept of Education

Education is that continuous and purposeful social process by which the innate powers of man are developed, his knowledge and skills are enhanced, his behaviour is changed and he is made a civilized and cultured citizen. By it the Individual and society both develop continuously.

This definition of education is complete in itself. It clearly describes the nature of education (that it is a purposeful, social, continuous, dynamic and developmental process) and its functions (that by it the innate powers of man are developed, his knowledge and skills are enhanced, his behaviour is changed and he is made a civilized and cured citizen). In making an individual a civilized and cultured citizen, all the aims and functions of education of any society are included. So this definition of education should be acceptable to all

Wider and Narrower Meanings of Education

We know that the education of a child in a society goes on in the family, in the small and big social groups, community centres and different types of schools, colleges and universities. However, some people term only the education conducted in schools, colleges and universities as education. Thus, education is used in its two forms in its wider form and in its narrower form.

Wider Meaning of Education

We know that when man takes birth, he is in a very helpless state, but he starts to learn by imitating his fellow beings and gradually learns different types of activities. then He learns the first lesson in the lap of his mother and then learns in his family nady environment and then in other social groups. The civilized societies arrange schools for the proper development of their children and to bring about desirable change in their behaviour. But the children also learn at other places besides the schools. And the truth remains that the process of teaching-learning continues even after they leave schools and it goes on lifelong. In its extensive sense, this lifelong continuous teaching- learning process is education. The aims, curriculum and teaching methods of this education are very wide, they cannot be limited, but they all are progressive. 

In the words of J.S. Mackenzie : "In wider sense, it is a process that goes on throughout life and that is prometed by almost every experience in life."

In its wider sense, education is that continuous and purposeful social process by which the innate powers of man are developed, his knowledge and skills are enhanced, his behaviour is changed and he is made a civilized and cultured citizen. By it the individual and society both develop continuously.

Narrower Meaning of Education

In the words of J.S. Mackenzie : "In narrower sense, it may be taken to mean any consciously directed efforts to develop and cultivate our powers."

Most of the scholars are in agreement with this definition of education in its narrower sense, but it does not provide a clear cut knowledge of the form of education and of its outcome. In our view, education in its narrower sense should be defined as follows

In its narrower sense, education is that purposeful social process which is conducted in a society at a definite time and at definite place (schools) in an organized way and by which the innate powers of man are developed, his knowledge and skills are enhanced, his behaviour is changed and he is made a civilized and cultured citizen. By it, the individual and society both develop continuously.

Nature of Education

The nature of education has been basically discussed by philosophers, sociologists, political scientists, economists, psychologists and scientists. From their viewpoint, the following facts can be divulged regarding the nature of education  :

(1) Education is a social process. It has three factors chiefly learner, teacher and teaching-learning material or activity. 

(2)  Education is a continuous process. 

(3) Education is a purposeful process; its aims are determined by the society and are progressive by nature. Thus, education is a process of development. 

(4) In its wider sense, the subject-matter of education is very extensive, it cannot be delimited, but in its narrower sense, its subject-matter is limited to definite curriculum In both the senses, this is helpful in the development of the individual and of the society.

(5) In its wider sense, its methods are very extensive, but in its narrower sense, they are almost definite. 

(6) The form of education of a society depends on several factors, such as-its religion, philosophy, culture, political system, economic system and progress in science and technology etc.

(7) It is evident from the above facts that with the change in the religion, philosophy, culture, political system, economic system, and science and technology of the society the form of its education too changes. Thus, the nature of education is dynamic.