PSYCHOLOGY & EDUCATIONAL PSYCHOLOGY

      EDUCATIONAL PSYCHOLOGY

Introduction 

We are living in a age of science and technology and according society has become bit complex. Life in the coming decades is likely to bring new tensions together with unprecedented opportunities. To enable the people to benefit in the new environment will require new designs of human resource development. Thus the coming generations should have the ability to internalise new ideas constantly and creatively and have to be imbued with a strong commitment to human values and to social justice. All this can be possible only  through good quality education.

To achieve the above goal and to meet the situation in a gigantic way the teacher has to play a very vital role in the educational institutions and come into the limelight. He is really the backbone of the educational system, the maker of the mankind, the fountainhead of knowledge, the architect of the society and the potential guide to provide directive for the growth and development of students of today as the worthy citizens of tomorrow. He is the real principal agency who is ultimately to implement and interpret the plan and policies at  various levels through teaching- learning processes. It has also been remarked by the Kothari commission (1964-66) that " the destiny of the country is being shaped in her classrooms". Therefore, in order to be a good mediator, the teacher has to understand a great deal about the way in which people at various ages and stages of development perceive the world around them. To meet the ' new' challenges boldly and to play his/her role meaningfully.

Under the above circumstances " Educational Psychology is a subject of study to give the perspective  teacher with the necessary skills and form competencies to enable him to deal effectively with the teaching- learning problems of the class.

What is Education

Education is communication which changes someone's inside  world so that they can change the world around them.  Education is the most powerful weapon which can use to change the world.

Meaning and  Historical  Background of  Psychology 

The word psychology is derived from Greek word Psycho and Logos.  'Psycho' means "Soul" and 'Logos' means "Science". The science of soul. 

  It is scientific because it is systematic study of observable events/behaviour and behaviour in unlearned process where it include reflexes,  Physiological process and instinct and it is learned behaviour also because all behaviour acquire through practice.  It can be overt and covert.

    Today Psychology is scientific method of collecting data about individual and groups to analyze and predict their behaviour. 

Introduction of Educational Psychology

Educational Psychology is nothing but one of the branch of applied psychology. It is an attempt to apply the knowledge of psychology to the field of education. In other words, Educational Psychology is the study of experience and behaviour of the learner in relation to educational environment.

 Educational psychology is concerned with the problems, processes and products of education, which is natural and heterogeneous. 

It is the application of psychological principles, techniques and other resources of psychology in the field of education for the solution of educational problems life teaching, learning and class management, etc. When a person apply the knowledge of psychology in the field of education, study the human behaviour in relation to his environment and concern for the total growth and all rounduppyment of children in a scientific way is called Educational Psychology.

Definitions :

Skinner (1958) :– " Educational psychology is that branch of Psychology which deals with teaching and learning. It means psychology is applied in the field of education for improving the methods and products of the teaching- learning process".

Crow and  Crow (1973) :– " Educational psychology describes and explains the learning experiences of an individual form birth through old age".

Peel  :– " Educational psychology is the science of education".

Anderson  :– " Educational psychology is a subject to be studied, an area or field of knowledge, a set of applications of law and principles from a field of knowledge to as social process Assets and techniques and a field of research for the development of an individual in an educational setting".

  Thus, Educational psychology is the application of the findings and theories of psychology in the field of education, a systematic story of educational growth and independent applied discipline that deals with the improvement in teaching a learning activity.  In fact, it seeks to know the child's mind and how best the child can be motivated to learn in a desirable manner in the society. It is the empirical foundation of education and provides practical solution to educational problems with the help of sweet relation between the teacher and the  taught. 

Education and educational psychology

Education by all means is an attempt to more and shape the behaviour of students 

Nature of Educational Psychology

The following are the nature of Educational Psychology:

Educational Psychology is scientific in nature. In Science selection of data, observation of facts and verification of any phenomena are possible by any number of persons at any period of life. Similarly, Educational Psychology has also developed certain principles to collect data from human beings and predict his/her behaviour in a scientific manner.

Educational Psychology is concerned with the study of behaviour of the learner in relation to his educational environment. Educational Psychology is constantly in search of the truth in the sense that the results of the study of human behaviour can be modified as per the latest findings in the field.

Educational Psychology is a social science in the sense that it is like other Social Sciences to study the human beings and their Sociability. 

Educational Psychology is concerned with 'what' and 'why' of happening in the present rather than the past. It studies the problems of present behaviour of the learners and their causes rather than anything else.

Educational psychology is a positive science rather than a normative science. It is not concerned with 'what ought to be' (why and what type of education to child, etc.), rather emphasises is how, when and where of education.

Educational psychology is an applied Psychology in the sense that it applies psychological principles in the field of education which are of specific significance of learning and teaching. It does not accept blindly the facts and principles of General Psychology.

Educational Psychology is a narrower in nature because it is with delimitations.  Here the study of the behaviour is concerned in educational setting.

Educational Psychology is a developing or growing science in the sense that the research findings provide reliable data and inside into the child's nature and we use for predictions of the behaviour of a child in similar situations.  Though it is not so perfect and developed as science like physics, chemistry and biology and absolute in nature, yet is follows the footprint of scientific investigation and considered as scientific.

     Scope of Educational Psychology 

The scope of educational psychology means the topic covered or the subject matters are included under the boundary of purview of the concerned paper.  A course in educational psychology must seek to enrich knowledge and develop  competence  in the the following areas :

The Learner –   The subject matter of educational psychology is knitted around the learner.  Therefore, the need of knowing the learner and the techniques of knowing him well. The topics include – the innate abilities and capacities of the individuals,  individual differences and their measurements, the overt, covert, conscious as well as unconscious behaviour of the learner, the characteristics of his growth and development and each stage beginning from childhood to adulthood.

The  Learning  Experiences – Educational psychology helps in deciding what learning experiences are desirable,  at what stage of the growth and development of the learner, so that these experiences is can be acquired with a greater ease and satisfaction.

Learning  Process –   After knowing the learner and deciding what learning experiences are to be provided,  Educational Psychology moves on to the laws, principles and theories of learning. Other items in the learning process are remembering and forgetting, perceiving, concept formation, thinking and reasoning, problem solving, transfer of learning, ways and means of effective learning etc. 

Learning  Situation  or Environment –  Here we deal with the environmental factors and learning situations which come midway between the learner and the teacher. Topics like classroom climate and group dynamics, techniques and aids, that faciliate learning and evaluation,  techniques and practices, guidance and counselling etc. For the smooth functioning of the teaching- learning process.

The  Teacher – The teacher is a potent force in any scheme of teaching and learning process. It discusses the role of the teacher. It emphasizes the need of 'knowing thyself 'for a teacher to play his role properly in the process of education. His conflicts, motivation, anxiety, adjustment, level of aspiration etc. It throws light on the essential personality traits, interests, attitudes, the characteristics of effective teaching etc so as to inspire him for becoming successful teacher.

It studies the Growth and Development of the child how a child. How a child passes through the various stages of growth and what are the characteristics of each stage are included in the study of educational psychology. 

It studies Human Behaviour  in  educational situations. Psychology is the study of behaviour.,and  education deals with the modification of behaviour;hence, educational psychology pervades the whole field of education. 

To what extent Heredity and Environment contribute the growth of the individual, and how this knowledge can be made use of for bringing about the optimum development of the child; for a salient feature of the scope of educational psychology.

Educational psychology deals with the Nature and Development of the Personality of an individual. In fact, education has been defined as all- round development of the personality of an individual; personality development also implies as well a well adjust personality.

It studies Individual Difference. Every individual differs from every other individual. It is one of the fundamental facts of human nature which have been growth to light by educational psychology. This one fact has revolutionised the concept and process of education. 

It studies the nature of Intelligence and its Measurement. This is the utmost importance for a teacher.

It provides Guidance and Counselling. Education is nothing but providing guidance to the growing child.

Need or Importance of Contribution or Utility of Educational Psychology

Though the knowledge of educational psychology do not guarantee good teaching yet with

out it, teaching becomes simply a case of rules of thumb, routine habits and trial and error procedures, many of which would be detrimental to the child.  Its function is to promote greater understanding of the learning process of the learning situation and of the learner and will put the teacher in a better position to decide the line of action. The knowledge of educational psychology helps the teacher in the following ways :

To Understand the Stages of Development

Educational psychology has the teacher to understand that human life is divided into different stages of development and each stage has special needs, abilities and characteristics. On the basis of this, the teacher gains better inside into the behaviour of his pupil and change his behaviour and methodology of teaching according to the child requirement in the class.

To Understand the Learner and its Characteristics

The child or the learner is the key factor in the teaching–learning. Educational psychology helps the teacher to understand how children grow, develop learn and adjust; his/her interest, attitude and innate potentialities; and likes and dislikes, level of aspiration and desires, etc., so that perfect guidance and health can be provided and positive attitude towards the learner can be formed.

To Understand the Nature of Classroom Learning

The classroom is heterogeneous in nature. To deal with the groups effectively in the class the teacher must have the knowledge of the various approaches to the learning process, principles, laws and factors affecting it then only he/she can apply remedial measures in the learning situation.

To Understand the Individual Differences

It is a fact that no two individuals are alike so also no two students are equal in the class. Thus, psychology tells the teacher about the individual differences among the students in the class and the procedure, methodology and techniques to be adopted for them.

To Develop Necessary Skills and Interest in Teaching

Educational psychology helps the teacher to develop necessary qualities and skills to deal with the problems created by the pupils, maintain a healthy atmosphere in the class–room and shows concern regarding the progress of the child. 

To Understand the Influence of Heredity and Environment on Child

Educational psychology help the teacher to know that the child is a bi–product of both heredity and environment. They are the two sides of a coin. w

While child is born with a number of hereditary qualities, environment helps them to be modified according to the requirements of the society.

To Understand the Mental Health

Educational psychology helps the teacher to know what are the factors responsible for the mental ill–health and maladjustment of a student and suggest improvement  thereof . Besides this, also provides the teacher with necessary inside to improve his own mental status to cope up with the situation. 

To Understand the Group Behaviour

Human beings cannot live in isolation. He needs company. Similarly, we all of us are members of certain social group and depend upon others. In this situation, psychology tells a teacher how a group life modifies the individual and vice versa and provide information how to handle groups and modify their behaviour. 

To Understand the Procedure of Curriculum Construction

Curriculum is an integral part of the teaching–learning process. Curriculum should be child–centred and fulfill the motives and physiological needs of the individual because child capacities differ from stage to stage. Educational psychology helps the teacher to suggest ways and means to curriculum framer to prepare sound and balance curriculum for the children.

To provide Guidance and Counselling

Today guidance to our child at every stage of life is needed because psychological abilities, interest and learning styles differ from person to person. Similarly, what courses of study the child should under take in future it also a vital question. All these can be answered well if the teacher knows the psychology of children. 

To Understand the Principles of Evaluation

Evaluation is an integral part of the teaching–learning process how to test the potentialities of the child depends upon the evaluation techniques. The development of the different types of psychological test for the evaluation of the individual is a distinct contribution of educational psychology.

Educational Psychology Helps in Professional Growth, Changing Attitude and Innovative Thinking

Inside the classroom, educational psychology has enable the teacher to achieve proper conditioning of pupils by achieving and directing classroom programs on human lives. Not only this, educational psychologists are busy in finding out innovations in the field of education.

Conclusion :

Educational psychology is important because it trains us to watch for different learning situations, and how to adapt to those situations accordingly. By studying the ability, interest, intelligence and needs of students teachers and others to adapt material to improve the learning experience and process.

 BETI BACHAO, BETI PADAO

Women are very important in the life of individual, family, society, nation and world; infact, the very existence of all these cannot be imagined without them. They are not only inevitable, the entire progress of the family, society, nation and world depends on them. This was the reason that Aristotle commented in ancient times: " It is on the progress on or  decline of women that the progress or decline of the nation depends."

Goldsmith stated her importance in these words:" It is a woman who turns a thorny shrub into a flowery plant; it is she who turns the house of even of the poorest man into a sweet home: a Paradise."

There is no exaggeration in saying that a skilled and educated woman betters two families. Prior to marriage, she does a great yeoman service to her parental house, and after marriage, she refines and improve the household of her in- laws. It is a paradox that her importance has been accepted in all times yet her existence and education have always been under dark clouds. We are aware that she was deprived of education in the ancient times and only a few of them could be educated. This trend continued during the Buddhist and Brahamanic eras; the medieval period brought them more agony; and we can say that her condition has improve with in the modern times; yet the threat of her life has continued unabated in different forms. 

 It is a matter of satisfaction that our present Prime Minister Narendra Modi is quite alive to this issue and has prepared a plan at the national level; that was the scheme of Beti bachao Beti Padao (Save Daughters,Teach Daughters). He launched this scheme on 22  January 2015, and ever since this scheme is seeing the headway in the entire country, and different programmes are being started under it.

 This scheme got up further boost recently when after the 2016 Rio Olympics, only two women succeeded to win medals at the most prestigious international sports competition, and yet another maxim was added by the elated Chief Minister of Haryana Manohar Lal Khattar, that was 'Beti Khilao' ( let Daughters Play). There is no denying the fact that only women could bring glory to the nation in this world competitions, else our pocket would have remained empty.

Aims of Scheme ' Beti Bachao, Beti Padao'

Keeping in view the importance and exalted aim of the scheme, the scheme of Beti Bachao, Beti Padhao has been started by the joint initiative of the Child Development Ministry, Health Ministry, Family Welfare Ministry and Human Resource Development Ministry. Under the purpose of this scheme two aims  are sought to be achieved :

・ to bring about a balance in the unequal sex ratio, and

・  to educate the girl- child in order to ensure their participation in the country's development.

An initial grant of Rs. 100 crore was earmarked for this scheme, with which the work of spreading awareness of welfare schemes for women is being carried out. In order to link gender equality with the mainstream education, and additional chapter on gender equality will be added to school curriculum. The purpose of this initiative is to sensitive students, teachers and community towards the needs of girl- child and woman, so as the cultivate a harmonious environment in the society. Under this scheme work is being undertaken on the following activities : 

・  Activating school management Committees, so that girls are enrolled in schools in a great number.

・  Starting Balika Manch or  Girl Fora in schools.

・  Construction of toilets for girls in schools.

・  Restarting and repairing of toilets which are non- functional in schools.

・  Completion of all Kasturba Gandhi Bal Vidyalayas.

Initiating a broad campaign for re-admitting girls two secondary schools who have dropped out.

Significance of Beti Bachao

This part of the scheme of 'Beti Bachao, Beti Padhao' is aimed at bringing about equality in the sex ratio between boys and girls. However, a pertinent question arises if this will serve the purpose. Even if girls become equal number with boys, will it solve the problems regarding women empowerment? If we look around ourself, we find that equality of sex ratio is only a small part of the work that needs to be done in the welfare of women; there are other more pressing issues which demand attention and action; for example, we need to be sensitive to the violence that is perpetrated against women in different forms. Every morning the newspaper brings us the news of violence and atrocities against women without fail. When a negative environment persists, no parents would like to have daughters. The mindset of people can be corrected only when there exist no threat to her security, well-being and progress. In India, girls are worshiped and women adorned as sisters, daughters and mothers; yet if violence against them persists, we will have to look for their causes elsewhere. A country where it is a hard nut to crack to get an FIR filed when some incident of mishappening occurs against a woman, there is a dire need to correct the mindset.

 It is often seen that when she approaches somebody, the person in authority has the last thing in mind to do good of her, rather he thinks 'what he can do to her' in place of ;what he can do for her'. Only wishful thinking is not going to help if we want the sex ratio to improve. Only increasing the number of girls is not going to help, it also requires that they are put on the path of progress and development; they should continuously advance. Every barrier, every hurdle that impedes their progress must be abolished and this dismantled and destroyed so that women can march shoulder to shoulder with man, rather they advance ahead of man. The slogan of 'Beti Bachao, Beti Padhao' is just this.

Measures for Beti Bachao

 In order to allow women and girls to prosper and contribute in the development of the country, it is necessary that they are protected in the first place. Speaking in terms of the law, there is no dearth of the legal provisions that provide them protection against atrocities and cryings, yet our system is such that they are deprived into media, and the drive is mainly focused on cover-up rather than doing something substantial so that nothing of the short occurs in the future. There are a number of laws that have been legislated and enacted for the well being of girls and women, such as those dealing with female foeticide, female infanticide, sati custom, dowry harassment, rap domestic violence, and so on. What is needed is to put these laws into earnest implementation so that they are abided by in the true spirit.

Significance of Beti Padao

The two parts of the slogan 'Beti Bachao, Beti Padhao' cannot be separated, yet we have done this in order to explain the inner sense it is entailed with.In fact, the very campaign of Beti Bachao can succeed only when the campaign of Beti Padao materializes into reality.  This does not imply only merely enrolling  girls in schools and women in vocational and evening classes,  but is also implies that when girls attend school, they are made to feel secure. They should be provided security from the moment they step out of the house to head for school, and their protection has to be insured when they are at school.

 To make girls advance in life, it is important that they are educated without any restrictions from family or society. They should be allowed to pursue higher or vocational education as per their interest, ability and aptitude so as to create a bright future for themselves, family and nation. The condition of girls education in the country is below satisfactory level. It is somewhat satisfactory in urban areas, while in rural areas, the situation is very pitiable. A great hurdle in the path of girls education is that they are considered a person who is going to leave them after wedding. This 'paraya dhan' is not going to give them any return for the money spent on their education, it is so thought, that this is one of the reasons that girls are not sent to school. However, it should be borne in the mind that when a family educates a son, only one family is benefited, but when a girl is educated, the entire society and nation benefit. 

Measures for Beti Padao

To make girls and women  and advance on the path of progress, it is necessary that they are provided opportunities for advancement. We can discuss these measures under the following headings :

Upbringing : There should be spread mass awareness regarding upbringing of girls; people should be educated that girls are as important for the family, society and nation and that their well-being has to be ensured. Parents should take care for them as they do for sons.

Social Security : Social security is a wide concept covering different aspects of life. It provides girls and women those measures which ensure her advancement despite all kinds of social and financial hurdles.

Availability of Employment Opportunities : We have earlier discussed that girls and women have been stereotyped in certain roles in jobs, as teachers, nurses etc. It is a matter of great satisfaction that now we can see women in diverse fields, including the armed forces, engineering and medical. We can find increasing number of sales girls and shop owners in the big cities. The employer should keep in mind that women are not unequal, they are differently capable, they may not be able to lift heavy weights, but they are certainly capable of operating the JCB machines. When women are deprived of employment, one half of our working population is made to sit back and look on without any fruitful outcome.

Change of Mindset : It is very important that the parents should change their mind regarding to girls education. However, they conveniently forget that a highly educated girl will be able to get a good employment, and in such a case, there will not arise a need to be paid any dowry. What it entails is simple, the amount intended to be spent on her wedding and dowry can well be spent on her education, and this will give her a better life and raise the standard of life for the family, and consequently the society and nation.

Government Efforts : The government, especially the present modi government, has made several efforts to take forward the campaign of 'Beti Bachao, Beti Padhao'. The building of toilets in schools and homes, cleanliness drive, social security, reporting of crimes against women etc., are only a few measures, while more are being under taken. The society should stand by the government in it's efforts. The foremost thing that the government needs to do is to make the government departments perfect and efficient, as well as sensitive to perceive the needs of women. Their approach should be proactive, and not the one that begins after something has occurred.

Conclusion :

We cannot assign the responsibility for the successful accomplishment of 'Beti Bachao, Beti Padhao' only on the government. It is the duty sacred duty and responsibility of each individual that every possible effort is made for girls and women to prosper and blossom in life. Girls and women should be encouraged and their security should be ensured at every step. If anyone sees any one trying to harm her security, it becomes in incumbent upon him to raise his voice, so that the notorious elements are eradicated. Social security is the main concern, and if it is provided, there is no reason that people would not like to engage themselves in crying's like female infanticide and female foeticide.

Social Reform movement and Women,

 Concept of Social Reform movement

According to Herbert bloomer, a social movement is a collective effort to bring about a new system in some field of life. It is born from the dissatisfaction that emerges from the prevalent situation, and it is born from the expectation of a new social system taking its place. A movement is a pressure created by people in order to bring about social change.

According to Smelser, "Collective movements refer to collective efforts to modify norms and values, which frequently (but not always) developed over longer period of time."

 Points Related to Social  Movement 

All social movements are the result of collective action and efforts, but it is not necessary that all collective efforts would be able to lead a social movement.

A social movement may lead to or inspire are revolution.

A social movement is generally inspired by relieving people or its members from some evil or other specific goals.

 These movements include in them only certain classes of the society, and their influence can be seen on certain sections of the society, and generally, their consequence is the manifestation of change.

Women movements in India

In India, women movements started in the 19th century as a social reform movement. When the western concepts of freedom, equality and brotherhood, started to spread in the elite classes through the English language, it led to raising of questions retaining to women, and thus, started the work of spreading awareness about women's condition. If we look at the Indian perspectives, we find that here the movements are quite weaker when compared with the movements in the Western and European civilization concerning the issues opposing patriarchy as well as gender injustice.  In fact, expression against patriarchy has been quite week in India. Some voices of discontent can be felt in the articles written by women in the 18th century, yet there cannot be seen any active opposition or revellion about them. The women try to go against the patriarchal system of the society by participating in the bhakti movement. Of course, in the 19th century, women expressed themselves against patriarchal concepts, but this awareness could not transform itself into open and organize struggle for existence and livelihood. Of course, the voices against injustice being meted out to women could be seen everywhere.

Women movements in India can be classified into three waves. The first wave was seen during the 19th century and the freedom movement, and by the middle of the 20th century, women took active part in the freedom movement. By the end of 1960s, we can see a paradigm jump in the political activism, and it can be seen by as the second wave. By the end of the 1970s, its third wave was created whose focus point was women empowerment.

Pre- Independence Women Movments in India

First Wave of Women Movements

We can find from diverse political, religious, social, literary and cultural articles, folk songs and folk tales as well as sayings that women have been in subordination since the very beginning,  though some voices of a opposition have been raised at different times. The India history is replete with several such instances in which women raised boys against the established system, such as Razia Sultan, Rani Lakshmi Bai, Ahilyabai Holkar, Muktabai and others. In each Era, women have tried to break away the slavery bonds.  Women of different races and castes took part in bhakti movements. Several saints and seers too came forward for equality of men and women. The bhakti movement was a movement which was free from Gender and caste discrimination.  Akkam Mahadevi and Janki became chief poetesses.  The saints and seers of the bhakti movement created much literature in regional and local languages and dialects and they worshipped gods as well as goddesses together, and such as Lakshmi-Narayan, Krishna- Radha,  Vishnu-Lakshmi and so on.

Some Social Reformers who work for Women's progress 

Raja Ram Mohan Roy

The first public debate to educate women was started by the Atmiya Sabha, founded by Raja Ram Mohan Roy, in 1815 in Bengal. The same year, he assailed the Sati custom and wrote the first article on it in the Bengali language. Raja Ram Mohan Roy was the first to raise voice against the Sati custom and it was owing to his potent  opposition to it that lord William Bentinck passed the Sati abolition Act, 1829. He wrote his book, A Conference between an Advocate for and an Opponent to the Practice of Burning Widows Alive, written in 1815, when upon his brothers death, his wife was forced into the burning pyre.

The Sati movement progressed as a cause for improving women's condition, while the second cause was women's education.

Development of Women's Education

The girls schools were first started by the English and Christian Missionaries in 1810.

The first book in Bengali language was written in 1819 which concerned women's education, it was written by an Indian named GurumohanVidyalankar, and it was published by the Kanya Bal Samiti.

Until 1827, the missionaries started 12 girls school in the Hooghli district.

 A year later, the Ladies Society for Native Female Education in Calcutta and its vicinity opened school which were run by Miss Cook.

Ishwar Chandra Vidyasagar

Hey drew attention of people towards the problem of widow remarriage and thus worked on improving the condition of widows. He ran a movement in 1850 to eradicate the prohibition imposed on widow remarriage, and also published a book in Bengali which claim that widow remarriage was in consonance with the holy scriptures.  In 1856, the Widow Remarriage Act was passed.

Justice Mahadev Govind Ranade

He founded an Indian organisation, called the National Social Conference, to carry forward the social reform movement. It was the first national organisation to run the social reform movement in an organised way and to provide it a momentum. It earnestly raised the issues of widow remarriage. Hee was ordered by Shankaracharya in 1869 to attend the first widow remarriage ceremony. Ranade also worked for women education. He and his wife opened a girl school in 1884.

Maharshi Karve

He too worked in the field of improving the condition of widows, and revived the widow remarriage organisation, and also started the Hindu Widow Home. He worked for spread of education among girls as well as widows.  In order to establish a role model, he married a widow after his wife death. 

Swami Dayanand

He setup the Arya Samaj. He believed in the equality of men and women. He advocated for women education for 16 years and set up a number of educational institutions.

Swami Vivekanand

Stressing the need for women education, he said that educated women would be able to resolve their problems emphatically. He also opposed early marriage of girls. According to him, a woman should distance herself from the conventional Anti-social institutions, and they should be taught the lessons of freedom and equality he also explored the historical causes for decline in women's standard, and laid stress on the need for eradication of their social subordination. He described women education as necessary not only for themselves but for the whole country's progress. 

As a result of social reform movements, several institutions and organisation's were set up. They spread their work all over the country. The institutions established during this period were as follows:

The Gujarat Vernacular Society

This society was set up in 1848, its aim was to eradicate illiteracy and orthodoxy prevalent in Gujarati community, it worked on social reforms linked with women and their education. It established a number of co-education schools and it also published several issues concerning women. It provided women a stage for raising their problems, and also organised lecture contests.

The Deccan Education Society

This society was set up in 1884. It opened girls schools in Maharashtra and encourage their education. 

Ramkrishna Mission

It was set up in 1897. It opened homes or refuge centres for widows and girls.  It also supported helpless and caste away women, and trained women in midwifery and post-natal courses.

Arya Samaj

It started a revival organisation, but it did commendable work in the field of women education. It included home science, domestic matters and fine arts in the curriculum of girls,  and it also included religious education as well as rituals for women. It also gave refuge to troubled women. From the letter half of 1980s, it started to open a number of girl schools with the help of elite Arya Samajists, yet they entertained different views when it came to higher education for women. 

Hingne Women's Education Institution

It was started in 1896 with an aim to impart education to unmarried. Married and widow women. Small girls were trained in several fields in order to check child marriage. It trained married women in several skills to run their homely life well. Widows were trained to become financially self dependent. 

SNDT Women University

It was set up with the goal of imparting education in mother tongue as well as higher education.

Seva Sadan

It was founded in 1908 with an aim to bring the intellectual women of different communities on a common platform, so that they could work for the uplift of backward women. In it, children and poor women were provided medical facilities. It also set up homes for helpless women and children.

Indian National Social Conference

Some prominent issues that this organisation raised s included child marriage,  polygamy and widow remarriage. It also worked on the issue of women education.

All India Women Conference

Its chief aim was to realize the goals of women education as well as social reform. Tt's aim included general progress of women and children. It passed several resolutions to uplift women's condition and also worked for eradication of child marriage, polygamy and divorce. It advocated equal rights for women. It also raise the issue of working conditions of women. It also raised the issue of trafficking of women and children, and also raise the problem of Devdasi.

Sharda Sadan

The Sharda Sadan was set up in Bombay in 1889 by Pandita Ramabai. It was a residential co-education school, and it was the first widow home in Maharashtra in 1882, the Government of India constituted a commission to study the situation of Indian education, in which ramabai suggested that teacher should be trained and inspectors for women college's should be appointed.  Besides, she laid on compulsory appointment of women's doctor. 

FEMINISM 

Introduction 

Feminism is the belief in the equality of the sexes, but it is often mistaken as the fight for women's rights alone. It is the belief that men and women should have equal treatment,  respect, rights and opportunities.

Feminism is an organised activity aimed at achieving political, social and economic rights for women and establishing equality of sexes.

Feminism refer to an instance awareness of identity as a woman and interest in feminine problem. Feminism is linked with women. Feminism is a social,  economic and political movement, based on two assumptions :– 

women are in disadvantages situation owing to their sex to resolve this situation.

Feminine  :– Noun denoting "Female  Gender."

Feminism has been concerned with different doctrines and viewpoints in different times,  sometimes it has taken a reformatory stand at others revolutionary. Feminist principles have been influenced by different political values and women movement has extended it into such domains as female suffrage, equality in education, equal opportunities in employment and salary, abortion and dress code etc.

A Vindication of the Rights of Women  (1972), written by Mary Wollstonecraft, is considered to Bible  of feminism. In the beginning it was mocked at describing it as "Hyena in petticoats". wollstonecraft empathetically argued for woman's rights. She opposed the views of Rousseau pertaining to ideal education for boys and girls, according to which it was necessary to develop in boys  the capacity to take free decisions so that they become good citizens,  and girls should be persons of good conduct, obedient and pure. 

• Feminism is the belief in the equality of the sexes, but it is often mistaken as the fight for women's rights alone.   It is the belief that men and women should have equal treatment, respect, rights and opportunities.

• The term 'Feminism' was first used by Charles Fourier in 1837, to link the status of women and social progress.

• Feminism is an organised activity aimed at achieving political, social and economic right for women and establishing equality of sexes. 

Role of  Feminism 

• Feminism concerned with different doctrines and viewpoints in different times.

• They take reformatory stand and revolutionary status. 

• Feminism is a system of thought and action, feminist is the women taking that action.

Waves of Feminism  :

• First  Wave of  Feminism 

The first-wave feminism was a period of feminist activity that occurred during the 19th and early 20th century throughout the Western world.  It focused on legal issues,  primarily on securing women's Right to vote.

What did it want?

- Women Suffrage  (Right to vote).

- Married women to be allowed to own  and inherit property,  and obtain legal identity independent from husbands. 

• Second  Wave of Feminism

⇒  The second wave of feminism is usually demarcated from the 1960s to the late 1980s.

⇒  This moment was initially concentrated in the United States of America and then spread to other Western countries it focused on issues of equality and discrimination.

⇒ The second- wave slogan "The Personal is Political" identified women's cultural and political inequalities with which encouraged to understand how their personal life reflected sexiest power structures. 

⇒  The proponent on the second wave of feminism was started by The Feminine  Mystique by Batty  Freidan in 1963. In his book she picturized the women from middle class,  leading prosperous and happy life. She criticized the idea that women could find fulfillment only through child-rearing and home making. Then in 1970 Radical Feminism Emerge.

⇒  Equal Pay  Act 1963 

⇒  Civil Right Act 1964

⇒  Formation of National Organisation for Women

⇒  Equal Credit Opportunity Act in 1974

• Third Wave of Feminism 

⇒  The third wave if Feminism is described as a sudden representation of Women at all levels of Government. 

⇒  The third wave feminism deals with issues which appear to limit or oppress women.

⇒  Gender Violence has become a central issue for third wave feminist.

⇒  The third wave of feminism was greatly focused on reproductive rights for women. Feminist advocated for a woman's right to make her own choices about her body and started that it was a basic right to have access to birth control and abortion. 

Fourth Wave of Feminism 

⇒  Fourth-Wave of feminism was created on the grounds of "the opposition to sexism, violence against women, sexual assault and rape culture on college campuses,  body shaming,  and workplace harassment." 

⇒  It began with Laura Bate's Every day Feminism project in 2012, which display some examples of sexism around the globe. 

#Me Too  Movement 

The #Me too movement was started by Tarana Burke in 2006 but become a social media trend in 2017 after the outing of movie Mogul Harvey  Weinstein when is time as a serial Sexual Predator against women in the film industry. 

                     Kinds of Feminism

                                  LIBERAL  FEMINISM 

⇒  Liberal feminism is an individualistic form of feminist theory, which focuses on women's ability to maintain their equality through their own actions and choices.

⇒ Liberal feminism seeks individualistic equality of men and women through political  and  legal  reform without altering the structure of society.

⇒  Due to this she argues that Liberal Feminism cannot offer any sustained analysis of the structures of male dominance,  power or privilege.

⇒  Declaring they would begin to make their own laws, free of male influence, the women's organisation brought liberal feminism to the forefront. 

⇒  Equal Pay Act, Sex Discrimination Act, Domestic Violence Act(Public and private sphere).

⇒  Some branches of feminism closely track the political leanings of the larger society,  such as libealism and conservatism,  or focus on the environment.

⇒  According to Jeelah Eliceteen (1979) Liberal feminism could not identity its shortcomes and inner -conflict with it's assumption of patriarchy and so it remained reformatory.

⇒  Feminist writers associated with this theory include Mary Wollstonecraft, John Stuart Mill,  Helen Taylor, Elizabeth Candy Stanton and Gina.  

Criticism 

⇒  Radical Feminist criticize that treating people equally mean treating women like men. 

⇒  Emphasis on Individual 

⇒  No attention given to the patriachal structure. 

RADICAL FEMINISM 

Radical feminists seek to abolish the patriarchy in order to "liberate everyone from an unjust society by challenging exiting social norms and institutions. 

⇒  Radical feminism is a perspective within feminism that calls for a radical reordering of society in which male supremacy is eliminated in all social and economic contexts. 

⇒  Radical feminists view society as fundamentally a patriarchy in which man dominate and opress woman.

SOCIALIST  FEMINISM 

⇒  Socialist feminism considers women oppression to be due to a complex interplay of social, economic and physiological factors. 

⇒  Marxist Feminism recognizes that women are oppressed due to their economic dependence on men.

⇒  Thus they insist that the only way to the end the oppression of women is to over throw the captalist system.

CULTURAL FEMINISM 

⇒ Cultural feminism refers to a philosophy that men and women have different approaches to the word around them,  and that greater value should be placed on the way women approach the world.

⇒  In some cases, cultural feminism argues that a woman's way of looking at the world is actually superior to men's. This perspective aims to unite all women, regardless of ethnicity, race, class or  age. 

⇒  The essence of being a woman is what makes women special and different compared to men, according to this view.

ECO-FEMINISM

Eco-feminism is a branch feminism that sees environmentalism, and the relationship between women and the earth, as the foundational to its analysis and practice. 

Eco feminist thinkers draw on the concept of gender to analyze the relationships between humans and the natural world.

Eco-feminist analysis explore the connections between women and nature in culture, religion, literature and iconography. 

Patriarchy

 PATRIARCHY 

Introduction of Patriarchy

"Patriarchy is a social system in which males hold primary power in the domain of the family, father or father fingers hold authority over women and children." 

What is patriarchy

"Patriarchy " (derived from  patriarch in  Greek) 

Is a term for societies in which male is the favoured gender, and in which men hold power, dominion and privilege. Male power in a patriarchy can be found at family community and governmental level.  Patriarchy defines men as the rulers, men's and women's roles are strictly defined and, in a sense, inforced. Women must be seen as inferior, vehicle generally less capable, less intelligent, and less worthy. There work is equally considered "lower". They are relegated to hearth and home. Cleaning, caring for the family and serving the husband. Critically, the same pressure exists for men to conform to particular roles. One classic (though not universal any stretch) is that men must be tough and strong, must not cry, must not back down, must be willing to get into physical altercations to solve problems.

Meaning And Definitions Of Patriarchy

In literal means:‐ " The  Role of The  Father ". Patriarchy is a social system where man why are considered superior and more powerful than women. It is made from two words Patri +Arch = Father's House.

Patriarchy represents as social and cultural system in which all the material resources e.g. land, property etc., are owned and controlled by the senior male who is the head of the family; and why virtue of that he enjoys control over all productive and even reproductive behaviour of women in the family.

Patriarchy is reflected in societies in multiple ways. 

It gets nourished through The stereotyping that takes place during the process of socialization, where why right from the birth, a child is trained to acquire a gendered behaviour, vocabulary and body language, that go with the cultural values and norms in a particular society.

Definitions :– 

Patriarchy is commonly described as "a system of social structures and practices, in which man govern, oppress and exploit women." Patriarchal violence is then any kind of violence that creates or maintain men's power and dominance, or avengers the loss of their power. Male dominance seems to be upheld primarily  through violence means.  These means as on a wide scale from verbal,  psychological, economic and physical is violence to sexual violence or murder.  Another possible definition is that violence is...... a collective term for the violence that is found throughout the word and that is rooted word is in patriachal power structured at defends."

According to  Sylvia Wabbley-  " Patriarchy is such a social practice in which men have the authority over women and they exploid and oppress them".

According to Maggie - "Patriarchy is a male-based system which keys women under social political and economic institutions"

According to Gerda Lerner-  "Patriarchy is the expression and institutionalization of men's dominance over women and children, and is an extension of social dominance of men over women generally. It entails that men enjoy control over all power institutions and women are deprived of such power stations."

According to  Uma Chakraborty  - "In the patriachal system, men have control over various aspects of women's life."

Patriarchy takes different forms in different communities, classes and castes, and its form is dynamic. As it is related to history and undergoes a change continuously, so it is understood that if men and women continue to agitate for an equal society, it may come to an end.

1. In a patriarchal system, men make all decisions both in the family as well as in the society.

2. Men are considered with identification that includes qualities of control, forcefulness, strength, strong work ethic, rationality, and competitiveness.

3. Men will be the heroes in all situations.

4. Toys for female children may in emphasized different values and roles within society, such as mother or housekeeper rather than educated professional.

5. From values, rituals and traditions to laws and formal institutions like governments, power within a society will be focused on a uplifting men.

6. Women's will not be allowed to suggest changes to any social order. 

7. Men hold all positions of power and authority.

8. The centre of activity and progression to move the society forward will be on men in a patriarchal system. 

9. Men will have the control at all time on finance and education.

10. History books may focus on male figures than female figures.

11. Women will have submissive roles sometimes.

12. Women will not be allowed to raise up to leadership levels or make decisions.

13. Women are also not allowed to demonstrate independence.

14. Men are considered superior.

15. Man will be the focus and developer of all events and inventions.

16. Man will be the center of social engagement, fun and entertainment.

17. Women in a patriarchal society are told from birth that they are inferior or controllable through infinite social and cultural cues.

18. Oppression of women will be visible.

Different Aspects of Patriarchy

Different aspects of patriarchy can be explained under the following heading :

• Concept of Private Property and Control Over Women's Reproduction

Our society was tribal or primitive society in the beginning in which women were generally given rights and the dynasty often ran in the name of the mother. However, as the society turned agricultural, the concept of private property became prominent. Now, men started to have increasing greed over power; he desired to have ownership over his offspring, and desired that his offspring should be  heir to his property. Man himself was a productive power, therefore, he claimed equal right over his children and further generations. He established that man procreates while women nurtures. Offspring is needed as the caretaker of property.

The concept of private property degraded the woman to her lowest social status. Thus, of all the aspects under man's control in a patriarchal system, the most important  is his reproductive capability.

• Control Over Labour Force

 Under the patriarchal system, man possesses control over woman's sexuality, he also controls her labour force. Under it, he ensures that woman will work at home while man will work outside. In the house, her roll will pertain to nurturing, and if she will work outside the house, she will need man's approval. Control over labour force helps man to have control over financial resources, as well as woman's sexuality and freedom, as woman's freedom to go out is limited, and for it, customs and traditions are referred to, why which they are limited to within the four walls of the house. Thus, her access to financial resources is limited and she happens to be fully dependent on man for all her needs.

• Paternalism

How man controls and dominates woman can be understood by the concept of paternalism. It is in fact a sub-part of patriarchy in which father enjoys complete control over other members of the family, and in written he provides economic aid as well as protection to his family members. There are two groups in paternalism: dominant and subordinate. In it, dominance is mitigated through responsibility and write over the others thus, dominance and subordination are not generally seen, as it is transformed into relations of fatherly protection and return for labour. Woman's subordination seems quite natural and we fail to notice any kind of subordination and subjugation, and with this, paternalism is established as a reality as well as a doctrine. When this doctrine is formed, women to cooperate in it.

• Women's Cooperation in Maintaining Patriarchal System

As an ideology, patriarchy is assisted by women in a way. They consent in maintaining it in some way, and this consent is obtained in several ways. First, women are dependent on men financially, so they are as good as compelled to assent to men. Besides, the women who follow the patriarchal system are respected and given other facilities; and those who do not cooperate or assent to this system and its rules, they are called deviant; and it is possible that they may be deprived of financial facilities. In this way, they may occur our division among women; one group favours the patriarchy and enjoy's the special facilities, while the other not. The group that disagrees with patriarchy is termed as corrupt or deviant. Besides, the women who oppose patriarchal customs or ideologies, they are scared for the use of force against them.

• Caste System and Patriarchy

In the patriarchal structure, casts and gender are significantly linked. In the beginning, the caste system was a particular part of the Hindu society, but now it has found strong hold in Christian and Islamic societies too. Women play a significant role in maintaining the caste system; here the casts are compartmentalized as patriarchal rules insure the marital alliances are held within the cast, and they should not be violated in any case. This rule is strictly followed in specifically the high casts, and is said to be in consonance with the scriptures.

• Benevolent  Paternalism 

Benevolent paternalism place a vital role in seeking women's cooperation in maintaining patriarchy and cast hierarchy, under it, the obedient women are given special rights and facilities; they are given the level of security and respect to the extent that they are even worshipped. According to different mythologies, women are so socialized that they start to believe in their purity and dutifulness for their empowerment. Sometimes, pure women think that they are in receipt of some divine power, and through this great and spiritual power, they can make even some amazing feat.

Thus, we see that paternalism, the concept of modernisation of women is mitigated fully by which women are made to help in maintaining patriarchy.

Causes 

• Religious: Male Dominance is "God given."

• Biological determinist : "man is the hunter and dominates."

• Marxist theorist Friedrich engels: "women become men's property."

• Anthropologist Claude Levi-Strauss: "Civilizations manage social relations through the "traffic in women" or the exchange of women."

• 19th century theorist, Bachofen Hypothesized: Matriarchal society preceded patriarchal society in historical time.

Merits of Patriarchy 

• The leader of the family is already decided, so there is no dispute and question who rules.

• In this system, no more burden of leadership or responsibility given to women, so that they can focus on their primary responsibilities of nurturing children.

• Many women feel valued for their unique contribution in patriarchal system.

• It gives a structure to the society and a place and role for everyone.

• A male is only had who gives direction to the family members and encourage them to serve others.

Demerits of Patriarchy

• In Patriarchy system, women are completely neglected and their path of development is blocked.

• Women are not provided equal status of men.

• This system completely disregard the role of women.

• Women becomes victims of exploitation and harassment.

• Women's are not involved in the decision making.

Conclusion :

At present, the structure of patriarchy and paternalist concepts are being contested hotly by the democratic and equal policies of the Constitution of India. Women's subordination and their exploitation in and outside home are being challenged by different movements being run in different parts of the country. Now the women or feminist movements have become quite dynamic. It is true these movements and feminist studies that the subordination of women, called patriarchy has been explained correctly.