Motivation

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Motivation 

Meaning and Definition of Motivation

Motivation is commonly meant to be encouraged for doing an activity, in this sense it symbolizes a process. However in the field of psychology, this term is used in two forms, as a process and as a product. As a process, it is used in the form of such a psychophysical process which inculcates such energy in an individual that he is encouraged to do a particular task. This process has a unique synthesis of affective and conative domains; in it, an individual becomes eager emotionally, then this eagerness takes the form of energy and fills encouragement and vigour in him, and ultimately, it inspires him to do a particular task. As a product, it is used in the form of that energy or power which is created from affective eagerness and which inspires an individual to do a particular work.

Historically, the word motivation comes from the Latin root 'movers' which means to move. It means motivation is the process of arousing movement in the organism which is produced and regulated through the release of energy within the tissues.

Different psychologists have defined this in different ways. 

1. Good has defined: Motivation is the process of arousing, sustaining and regulating an activity. 

2. Good, Blair, Jones and Simpson have defined : Motivation is the process of in which the learner's internal energies or needs are directed towards various goal objects in his environment. 

3. F.J. Medonald defined: Motivation is an energy change within the person characterized by affective arousal and anticipatory goal reaction.

4. Guilford defined "A motive is a particular internal factor or condition that tends to initiate and to sustain activity". Thus motivation includes all those internal conditions which begin an activity or sustain it.

5. Bernard defined "Motivation refers to all those phenomena which are involved in the stimulation of action towards particular objectives where previously there was little or no movement towards those goals". 

6. Atkinson defined "Motivation is the arousal of tendency to act or to produce one or more effects".

Meaning and Definitions of Motives

The factors which inculcate motivation in an individual towards doing an activity are called motives. Motives are generally divided into two classes internal motives and external motives.

By internal motives is meant physiological or biological motives in an individual, as self-defence, hunger, love, sex.

By external motives is meant environmental or psychological motives of an individual, as self-esteem, social level and aspiration for attaining a particular achievement.

So, motives can be defined in the following form:

Motives are those internal and external conditions of a person which motivate him to perform a particular task and keep him active until the realization of objective.

Theories of Motivation

Different psychologists have opined differently about the inculcation of motivation in people. These opinions are recognized as theories of motivation. Some of the important ones are as follows:

1. Instinct Theory: This theory was laid down by McDougall According to this theory, each behaviour of man is governed by his instincts, the emotions inherent behind instincts work as motives. In the context of this theory the first thing is that the psychologists are not in agreement about the number of instincts, and second, this theory does not stand on its own test. Instincts are identical in all individuals, then their behaviour too should be identical, but so is not the case.

2. Psychoanalytic Theory: This theory was propounded by Freud According to this theory, there are two basic factors of the motivation that influences man's behaviour instincts and unconscious mind According to Freud, basically there are only two instincts-life instind (eros) and death instinct (thanatos) which incline an individual toward constructive or destructive behaviour respectively. His unconscious mind also influences his behaviour unknowingly. In the context of the theory, the first thing is that the views of Freud regarding instinct are n acceptable to psychologists, and secondly, human behaviour is governed not by unconscious mind alone, but also by his sub-conscious mind and conscious mind.

3. Drive Theory: This theory was laid down by Klark L. Hull. According to this theory, physical needs of man create stress in him. which is called drive in psychological terminology, and these drives motivate an individual to work in a particular way later. Later the psychologists added psychological needs to these physical needs also, yet this theory remains incomplete in itself because this does not explain the higher cognitive behaviour of man.

4. Incentive Theory: This theory was laid down by Bolles and Pfaffman. According to this theory, man is influenced by the object, situation or activity located in his environment to act. They have considered all these factors in the environment as incentive. According to them, incentives are of two types-positive and negative. Positive incentives, such as food and water, push an individual towards the goal, while negative incentives, such as punishment and electric shock, prevent an individual from proceeding towards the goal. Because this theory lays emphasis only on external factors, so it is incomplete in itself.

5. Physiological Theory: This theory was propounded by Morgan. According to this theory, motivation is not created by any external stimulus, rather it is created due to the changes occurring in the physiological systems within the body. This theory overlooks the effect of environmental factors on man, so it is also incomplete in itself.

6. Need Theory: This theory was propounded by Maslow. According to this theory, human behaviour is inspired by his needs. Maslow has presented needs in a particular sequence. According to Maslow, so long man does pot fulfill his needs of one level, he does not proceed towards the needs of the next level. This is true for Maslow to say that man is motivated by his needs, but this is not true that man meets his needs in a particular sequence. Therefore, this theory is also incomplete in itself.

Functions of Motivation

Motivation has four fundamental functions in learning. These are:

(a) Motivation energizes the behaviour of the organism (the child) and arouse him/her for action (initiates the activity).

(b) Motivation direct and regulate our behaviour (the child's activity).

(c) Motivation controls behaviour and does not allow the child to move in haphazard way.

(d) Motivation directed toward a selective goal (not all the activities) which the individual sets for himself/ herself. It provides satisfaction after completion or achievement of goals.

Types of Motivation

Different classifications of motives have been effected from different view points. These are innate or intransic or natural and outward or acquired or extransic or artificial. When motivation arise from within the individual and is not linked with external forces and motivate the individual to perform some task or behave in a manner is called intransic motivation or Motivation is intrinsic when an individual recognises an activity as self-rewarding or derives satisfaction from the activity. Here motives come directly from within the person and no external pressures are necessary.

Similarly when outside forces such as praise/blame. rewards/punishment, and competition/cooperation, etc.. compel the individual and provide incentives to achieve the goal is called extrinsic motivation. Or when a child does not perceive the inherent value in an activity and pursues the activity not for its own sake but for the sake of some external reward is called extransic motivation.

Functions of Motivation

Motivation has four fundamental functions in learning. These are:

(a) Motivation energizes the behaviour of the organism (the child) and arouse him/her for action (initiates the activity).

(b) Motivation direct and regulate our behaviour (the child's activity).

(c) Motivation controls behaviour and does not allow the child to move in haphazard way.

(d) Motivation directed toward a selective goal (not all the activities) which the individual sets for himself/ herself. It provides satisfaction after completion or achievement of goals.

Techniques of Classroom Motivation

Psychologists have developes several techniques in order to keep students fully motivated. We shall discuss some special techniques in brief.

1. Understanding the Degree of Maturation Required for Learning

2. Bringing Assignments within Child's Experience

3. Respect for Personality of the Child, Appealing to Ego-Maximization

4. Securing Attention, Creating Interest and Enthusiasm

5. Attitude In Motivation

6. Praise and Reproof In Learning

7. Emphasis on Positive Guidance

8. Clear Assignments and Definite Goals

9. Encouraging Self Motivation among Children

10. Making Unconscious and Semiconscious Needs and Wants Conscious

11. Development of Self-Appraisal

12. Developing Values, Ideals and Life Goals

13. Setting a Good Example

14. Emphasis on Group Dynamics

15. Competition vs. Cooperation

16. Participation Through Participation

17. Appealing to as Many Motives as Possible and to the Total Personality

18. Token Economy

19. Knowledge of Progress

20. Effective Repetition and Active Participation.

Factors of Motivation

Forgetting

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Forgetting

 Meaning and Definition of Forgetting

Generally when a learnt material or activity cannot be recalled, it is called forgetting. However, in psychological terminology, the facts, incidents or experiences that the brain retains in the form of memory traces and is unable to bring to the conscious mind again when needed this mental process is called forgetting. Some psychologists have term it negative memory also. Psychologists have defined forgetting in their on way, 

Munn has defined in his words: Forgetting is failing to retain or to be unable to recall what has been acquired.

Drever has defined in his words: Forgetting means failure at any time to recall an experience, when attempting to do so or to perform an action previously learned.

Causes of Forgetting

Psychologists have conducted studies to find out why the experiences, knowledge and activities that have been learnt are forgotten. On the basis of their studies, they have laid down some theories of forgetting which are called theoretical causes. They have also located some general causes, which are called general causes. We shall present them here in brief: 

Theoretical Causes

Psychologists have accepted three theoretical causes of forgetting: 

1. Theory of Disuse: The psychologists who favour this theory say that when an individual learns something, some memory traces are formed in his brain, and he memorizes the learnt material or activities with the help of these memory traces; however, if these are not repeated, these memory traces are erased with the passage of time and the individual forgets the learnt material or activities. Of course, an individual is not able to forget some motor skills, as riding a bicycle, driving a car, swimming, etc. even without practice over a long period of time. In addition to this, the material or activity that has been over-learnt by him, he does not forget that also, such as the national anthem learnt during childhood. Some bitter experiences are also remembered the whole life, as some fire accident, drowning in water, being insulted by somebody, etc.

2. Theory of Interference: The proponents of this theory say that the mental activities performed just before and after learning a new Content or activity interfere in its memorization. The first President of the Stanford University, D.S. Jordan commanded mastery over the names of  species of fishes, but as he learnt the name of an individual, he forgot the name of one species of fish. This interesting tale supports the concept of Interference in memorization. These interferences are of two types:

(i) Retroactive Inhibition: The newly learnt material affects the previously learnt material, even normal walking after learning also inhibits memorizing. Sleeping after learning has better results.

(ii) Proactive Inhibition: Under proactive inhibition, the previously learnt material interferes in learning the new material. It has been found in tests that proactive inhibition hinders less in recalling the meaningful material, but more in recalling meaningless material. 

If the material is learnt more than the limit, then retroactive and proactive inhibition becomes negligible.

3. Theory of Repression: According to Freud, an individual attempts to forget displeasing experiences in his life because they create anxiety whenever they are memorized. If the impulses that create anxiety are repressed fully and are prevented from coming into the consciousness, then it is called repression. The process of repressions is adopted by the individual himself, or it can be adopted directly by others. Many unnecessary things inculcate anxiety, fear, grief, etc., it is necessary to forget them. It is also necessary for some mentally ill individuals to forget, which is done by the repression process. 

General Causes

Following are the general causes of forgetting:

1. Ill-health: An individual forgets the learnt things due to ill-health.

2. Mental Illness: The learnt things are forgotten due to mental illnesses, mental instability, mental hurt, mental conflict, etc.

3. Nature of Learnt Material: If the learnt material is simple and meaningful, it is memorized over a long time; on the other hand, complex and meaningless material is forgotten soon.

4. Quantity of Learnt Material: If the quantity of learnt material is more, then there is a possibility of forgetting it fully or partially. This also depends on the nature of the material.

5. Methods of Learning: The material learnt by uninteresting methods is forgotten sooner.

 
6. Incomplete Learning: If a material is learnt incompletely, then it is forgotten sooner.

7. Time Interval: When a long interval of time has elapsed after having learnt a material and it is hardly used in the interval, then the material is generally forgotten.

8. Disuse: Disinterest, inattention and disuse of a material cause the forgetting of a material.

Means of Minimizing Forgetting

All those measures are adopted for diminishing forgetting which are applied for enhancing memory. These measures are as follows:

(1) A learner should be physically healthy.

(2) He should be free from mental illnesses. 

(3) He should be free from mental hurts and mental conflicts.

(4) The utility of the material to be learnt should be made clear to the learner.

(5) Most suitable methods should be used for learning.

(6) The learnt material should be repeated. 

(7) The teacher's behaviour should be favourable.

Importance of Forgetting in Education

Forgetting is a mental process contrary to memorization. Generally, memorization is important in the life of every individual, but forgetting is also useful in life. Accepting the importance of forgetting. Collins and Drever have written:

It is true that forgetting is the opposite of remembering, but from a practical point of view, forgetting is almost as useful as remembering.

Forgetting is also very important in the field of education. Its importance can be discussed in the following points:

(1) The memory capability of students is limited and only limited experiences can be retained in it; so it is necessary to retain new useful things and to forget useless things.

(2) A student learns new content in the class, if he does not forget the unsuitable material learnt in the class, then it is not possible to the new material and recall it when needed.

(3) If all experiences of life are accumulated in the brain of students, then they would be unable to organize them properly and it would become a burden for them.

(4) An individual succeeds in memorization when he accumulates useful things and forgets useless things: the existence of these two contradictory types of things would create a situation of mental conflict, which can make him forget even useful things.

(5) There are many such experiences and incidents in life which create suffering and tension, so it is better to forget such experiences and incidents.

 (6) It is very necessary to forget the past in order to improve the future life.

Memory

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Memory

Meaning and Definition of Memory

Generally the ability to recall a learned content or an activity when is needed is called memory, but in psychological terminology, memory a mental process which is found in each organism in more or less measure. Psychologists have explained that when a person perceives object, place or person, or receives any other experience by any other sense organ, then these are accumulated in his unconscious mind in the form of symbol, mark or code. In their view, memory is the process of bringing these accumulated experiences in the unconscious mind to the conscious mind when needed. For example, when an individual watches an incident, then it is accumulated in his unconscious mind fully a partially. If due to any reason, this incident is recalled by the individual or he is reminded about it, then this incident occurs to the conscious mind the same form again.

Psychologists have defined memory in their own ways. We shall present the most suitable ones. 

In the words of Woodworth: Memory is the direct use of what is learned.

Hillgard has defined : Memory is that mental process which involves recalling the previously learned knowledge, experience or skill.

Stages of Memory

Psychologists have mentioned three stages or components of memory 一

first coding, second storage and third retrieval 

1. Coding: In coding,an  individual receives information or experience in the form of a definite code in his nervous system. In other words, forming of memory traces is coding. It is also called registration. 

2. Storage: The second stage of memory is storage. At this stage, the experiences obtained by coding are stored for some time. It is also called retention. 

3. Retrieval: At this stage, the necessary information or experiences are retrieved out of the stored information or experiences. This also called recall or remembering.

Steps of Memory Process

Woodworth has mentioned four steps of the memory process:

1. Learning: We can memorize a content only when we have learnt it before. According to Guilford, in order to memorize a content well, clear learning in the field essential. An individual should learn and memorize a content in order to increase the ability to memorize, he should relate new knowledge with previous knowledge and the lesson should be repeated again and again.

2. Retention: The second most important component of the memory process is retention of the learnt content. By retention is meant to store the content in the brain over a long period of time. When we learn content, the brain becomes active and some engrams are embossed in which are called memory traces. These traces exist in the conscious brain for sometime and then they shift to the unconscious mind. When it is needed to memorize a content, then these traces are transferred from the unconscious mind to the conscious mind and the individual becomes able to present the learnt knowledge again.

Psychologists say that retention power is innate and the environment does not play any special role in its development. Retention of a content depend on the following factors: 

(i) Physical and Mental Health: An individual who is physically and mentally healthy keeps something remembered over a long time, but in case of ill-health, his power of retention is weakened.

(ii) Mental Ability: Mental ability of different individuals is different, so their power of retention is also different. An individual with more intelligence has more retention ability than an individual with less intelligence. 

(iii) Nature of Subject Matter: The ability of retention also depends on this fact whether the material to be retained is simple or complex. If the material is meaningful for an individual and is useful for the future, then it is retained in the brain over a long period of time and if this learning is meaningless for him then he forgets it sooner.

(iv) Nature of Learning: The ability of retention also depends on this fact which method was used for learning and for how long it was done. If learning has been done by self actively, then the learnt material remains in the brain for a long time. The more is the amount of learning the more becomes the ability to retention. When an individual over-learns something, then it is retained by him all his life, such as the national anthem.

3. Recall: By recall is meant to bring the past experiences from the unconscious mind to the conscious mind again. This activity occurs when memory traces become active. These past experiences are brought to the conscious mind in the absence of original stimuli. If past experiences have not been retained well, then it is difficult to recall them. Recall is tested by paired association method.

In addition to the power of retention, recall also depends on his emotional state; a content learnt during the state of nervousness or fear are not memorized well. It is often seen that some candidates come for interview with a great preparation, but they say after the interview that they forgot everything due to panic or nervousness.

4. Recognition: Recognition is that ability by which past experiences or learnt facts are associated with or isolated from other facts to understand them clearly. For example, when we meet a man for the first time, then a reflection is formed in our brain by memory traces When we meet that man again years later, these memory traces become prominent and we become able to recognize that man again.Though recognition is a common experience, yet it is a complex and mysterious This process occurs automatically.

Characteristics of Good Memory

Good memory has the following characteristics: 

1. Quick Learning: A child with good memory learns something very quickly and learns the lesson on mere one reading.

2. Organization of the Learnt Content: Memory is no bag or box in which data are placed disorderly. We can recall a learnt material properly only when it has been stored in the brain in a systematic manner. A man with a good memory stores data in his brain in a systematic manner and is able to recall it when needed.

3. Good Retention: A man with a good memory has a good ability of retention also; the material he learns is retained in his memory for a long time.

4. Quick Recall: A man with a good memory has a quality that he recalls the learnt material rapidly. He presents the retained content without any delay if needed.

5. Accurate Recognition: A man with a good memory recognizes the previously known things.

6. Forgetting Unnecessary Material: A man with a good memory only retains necessary facts and forgets unnecessary facts.

Types of Memory

Due to individual differences, all individuals are not equally able to learn, retain and recognize. An individual can learn a material faster and retains it over a long time, while others may not be able to do so. Considering all aspects of memory, psychologists have determined the following forms of memory:

1. Immediate Memory : By immediate memory is meant learning a fact or information and repeat it soon after. There is much possibility of forgetting this type of memory. 

2. Long Term Memory: When a fact or experience is retained for a long period of time, it is called long term memory. 

3. Rote Memory: By rote memory is meant the ability to learn a fact without having understood it and present it verbatim when needed. Small children learn many rhymes by rote memory without having understood their meaning, and they repeat them whenever they are asked to.

4. Logical Memory: By logical memory is meant to learn a fact after having understood and reasoned it and present it when needed.

5. Active Memory: By active memory is meant to relearn experiences voluntarily and to present them well. Students write their answer books in the examination hall on the basis of their active memory.

6. Passive Memory: When past experiences are recalled without any active effort, it is called passive memory. This type of memory is not purposeful; for example, on naming the elephant recalling dark colour and massive size. 

7. Mechanical Memory: This memory is also called physiological or habitual memory. When an action is done by a body part, its repeated activity habituates that body part and an individual does not have to make any specific effort for doing that action. A driver of a vehicle does not have to pressure his brain to control it, his hands and feet work automatically.

8. True Memory: When a content is recalled independently, it is called true memory. This memory is motivated by interest and laws of association. The content is retained in this type of memory in a well organized manner which facilitates recall. This memory is considered to be the best type in the field of education.

Methods of Memorization

Learning is a part of memory, but there is a difference in the methods of these two. Following are the chief methods of memorization :

1. Whole Method: When a child memorizes the whole content together, then this method of memorization is called the whole method The whole method is effective for talented students. 

2. Part Method: When a child learns a content by dividing it into several parts, this type of memorization is called the part method. This method is suitable for dull students.

3. Mixed Method: When a child applies both of the whole and the part methods in memorizing a large content, then it is called the mixed method.

4. Spaced Method: When a child takes rest in between his memorization of a content, then it is called the spaced method. This method is good for permanent memory. This method causes less fatigue and gives an opportunity to learn with entire capability.

5. Unspaced Method: When a child learns a content without having spaced his learning, then it is called the unspaced method. In this method the content is repeated again and over again without any rest in between. This method is good for immediate memory.

6. Active Method: In this method, the content is learnt by speaking. This method is suitable for children of primary level. Memorizing by speaking also helps to improve the pronunciation. 

7. Passive Method: In this method, a child repeats the content in his mind without speaking. This method is suitable for the students of higher classes and adults.

8. Method of Association of Ideas: In this method, the material to be learnt is associated with other things. It helps to memorize the material rapidly and it is retained in the memory over a prolonged period.

9. Recitation Method: In this method, a child recites the content by speaking and then recalls it after closing the book. Gates, in his experiments, found the recitation method as more useful as compared to continuous reading.

Factors Influencing Memory

Several factors influence memory, the important of which are as follows:

1. Physical Health: Physical health has its effect on memory. Unhealthy children have a weak memory.

2. Mental Health: A child with good mental health has a good memory. The children who are suffering from any mental illness, fear, anxiety or other mental defects do not have a good memory.

3. Motivation: A motivated child learns faster and retains the learnt material over a long time and is able to recall it soon when needed.

4. Nature of Learning Material: A child is able to learn when the material is systematic and comprehensible.

5. Willingness to Learn: When a learner wants to learn, he would be able to learn the content, else not. The more intense the willingness to learn, the sooner occurs the memorization.

6. Interest and Attention: A child learns faster if he is interested and attentive. 

7. Memory Method: The method that a child uses for memorization has influenced over the process of memorization. Systematic and strong content can be learnt by the whole method, while the part method is suitable for difficult material.

8. Practice and Repetition: The more is the practice and repetition of the content, the more permanently it is retained in the memory. 

9.Teaching Methods: The teaching method adopted by a teacher also has an effect on the memorization.

10. Teacher's Behaviour: Affectionate and favourable behaviour of the teacher has favourable effect on a child's memorization.

Means of Improving Memory of Children

Most psychologists opine that memory is inherent and it not possible to increase it. However, some psychologists view the that improvement in memory can be effected to some extent. 

Some of the important measures are as follows: 

(1) Rapid memorization takes place when the material is presented in a systematic manner according to the level of children, and more material can be learnt in less time.

(2) Paying attention to the content helps to understand it well and it is memorized sooner.

(3) Memory can be increased when new knowledge is related to the previous knowledge.

(4) The ability to memorize is enhanced when the material is purposeful.

(5) When the material is presented logically, the retention power is enhanced.

(6) Frequent repetition can help to increase the ability to retention over a long period of time. 

(7) Following the laws of association in learning and memorizing enhances the power to retention.

(8) Today psychologists and games specialists have invented such games and tools the repeated use of which increases memory.

(9) Memory power can be increased by yogic activities, pranayama, meditation, etc. It has been proved by experiments that pranayama and meditation in pure environment increases intelligence which positively affects memory.

(10) Memory also increases when one is confident about his memory.

शैक्षिक उद्देश्य और अनुदेशनात्मक उद्देश्य

 उद्देश्य का अर्थ

उद्देश्य ऐसा कथन या रूप हैं जो वांछित परिवर्तन की ओर संकेत करता है।

रॉबर्ट मेगर के अनुसार, ''एक उद्देश्य कुछ शब्दों का समूह है जो किसी कोर्स के वांछित परिणाम को व्यक्त करता है। यह ऐसी इच्छा है जो एक कथन द्वारा व्यक्त की जाती है और जिसमें शिक्षार्थी में प्रस्तावित परिवर्तन की व्याख्या की होती है। यह ऐसा कथन है जिसका प्रदर्शन शिक्षार्थी शिक्षक के अभिक्रमित प्रभाव के अन्त में करता है। यह वांछित अधिगम परिणाम का विशिष्टीकरण है अर्थात् यह अन्तिम व्यवहार है जो केवल मानवीय एवं दृष्टिगोचर गुणों को सूचित करता है।"

शैक्षिक लक्ष्य सामान्य कथन होते हैं। इनकी प्रकृति दार्शनिक होती है, अतः इसका स्वरूप अधिक व्यापक होता है। यह शिक्षण को दिशा प्रदान नहीं करते हैं। शिक्षण उद्देश्यों की प्रकृति मनोवैज्ञानिक होती है। शिक्षण की युक्तियों तथा व्यूह रचना के लिये इनका अधिक महत्व होता है।

डेबिट ए० गयने के अनुसार, "शैक्षिक उद्देश्यों से तात्पर्य छात्रों में होने वाले उन परिवर्तनों से हैं जो शैक्षिक क्रियाओं द्वारा नियोजित रूप से लाए जाते हैं। ये परिवर्तन समाज द्वारा निर्धारित प्रतिमानों के प्रतिबिम्ब हैं।"

 इस परिभाषा से स्पष्ट होता है कि उद्देश्य की तीन विशेषताएं होती हैं ―

1. निर्देशन 一 यह उस क्रिया को निर्देशन प्रदान करता है जिसका निर्माण अन्तिम उद्देश्य की प्राप्ति के लिये किया गया है।

2. नियोजित परिवर्तन 一 यह नियोजित परिवर्तन में सहायता प्रदान करता है।

3. क्रिया का आधार 一 यह संगठित क्रियाओं को आधार प्रदान करता है।

बी० एम० ब्लूम के मतानुसार, "शैक्षिक उद्देश्य केवल वे लक्ष्य या उद्देश्य ही नहीं है जिन्हें प्राप्त करने के लिए पाठ्यक्रम की रचना की जाती है और जिनकी ओर शिक्षण को निर्देशित की किया जाता है अपितु यह मूल्यांकन की तकनीकी के निर्माण एवं प्रयोग के लिए विस्तृत स्पष्टीकरण भी प्रदान करता है।"

शैक्षिक उद्देश्यों की यह परिभाषा अत्यन्त व्यापक है। ब्लूम के विचारानुसार शिक्षा एक विध्रुवीय प्रक्रिया है।

 ये तीन ध्रुव हैं 一 

(1) शैक्षिक उद्देश्य

(2) अधिगम अनुभव

(3) व्यवहार में परिवर्तन। 

अधिगम अनुभव शैक्षिक उद्देश्यों की प्राप्ति के लिये शिक्षण क्रियाओं द्वारा प्रदान किये जाते हैं और व्यवहार में परिवर्तन का मूल्यांकन शैक्षिक उद्देश्यों के अनुसार किया जाता है। अतः शैक्षिक उद्देश्य शिक्षण क्रियाओं तथा मूल्यांकन प्रविधियों का आधार है।

रार्बट मेगर के कथनानुसार, "एक अनुदेशनात्मक उद्देश्य ऐसी इच्छा है जो कथन द्वारा व्यक्त की जाती है और जिसमें शिक्षार्थी में प्रस्तावित परिवर्तन का उल्लेख होता है। उन्होंने आगे कहा है, 'अनुदेशनात्मक उद्देश्यों का कथन ऐसे शब्दों अथवा प्रतीकों का समूह जो आप की एक व्यक्त करता है कि आप जान सकें कि शिक्षार्थी क्या करेगा, कब अपनी उपलब्धि को प्रदर्शित करेगा और आप को कैसे मालूम होगा कि वह कब ऐसा कर रहा है।"

अनुदेशनात्मक उद्देश्य शिक्षार्थियों के व्यावहारिक परिवर्तन के रूप में प्राप्त होते हैं। वे वांछित अधिगम या शिक्षण के परिणाम या शिक्षार्थियों में व्यावहारिक उद्देश्य भी कहा जा सकता है। अनुदेशनात्मक उद्देश्य उन कौशलों, ज्ञान, योग्यताओं तथा दृष्टिकोणों की और संकेत करते हैं जिनकी प्राप्ति की विद्यार्थी से आशा की जाती है अर्थात् अध्यापक यार्थियों से आशा करता है कि अनुदेशन के परिणामस्वरूप वे इन्हें प्राप्त करेंगे। ये उद्देश्य सीमित, विशिष्ट, सुनिश्चित, स्पष्ट एवं क्रियात्मक होते हैं। ये कक्षीय शिक्षण से संबंधित होते है। ये बुनियादी उद्देश्य हैं, जिन्हें सीमित समय में आसानी से प्राप्त किया जा सकता हैं।

शैक्षिक उद्देश्य एवं अनुदेशनात्मक उद्देश्य में अन्तर

 Difference between Educational and Instructional Objectives

शैक्षिक उद्देश्य व्यापक होते हैं। ये शैक्षिक पद्धति तथा शिक्षा के व्यापक उद्देश्यों के साथ सबंधित होते हैं। शिक्षण अथवा अनुदेशनात्मक उद्देश्य संकुचित एवं विशिष्ट होते हैं और इनका सबंध कक्षीय शिक्षण के साथ होता है। शैक्षिक उद्देश्य प्राईमरी से विश्वविद्यालय तक शिक्षण को गठित करने से प्राप्त किये जाते हैं जबकि अनुदेशनात्मक उद्देश्य 30 से 45 मिनट की अवधि प्राप्त करने होते हैं।

अनुदेशनात्मक उद्देश्य {Instructional Objectives}

अनुदेशनात्मक उद्देश्य का अर्थ  [Meaning of Instructional Objectives]

रॉबर्ट मेगर के अनुसार, "एक अनुदेशनात्मक उद्देश्य ऐसी इच्छा है जो कथन द्वार व्यक्त की जाती है एवं जिसमें शिक्षार्थी में प्रोत्साहित अधिगम का उल्लेख होता है।" उन्होंने आगे कहा है, "अनुदेशनात्मक या शिक्षण उद्देश्यों का कथन ऐसे शब्दों अथवा प्रतीकों का समूह है, जो एक या अधिक शैक्षिक इच्छाओं को व्यक्त करता है। एक उद्देश्य उस सीमा तक आपके इच्छाएँ व्यक्त करता है कि आप जान सके कि शिक्षार्थी क्या करेगा, तब अपनी उपलब्धि प्रदर्शित करेगा एवं आपको कैसे मालूम होगा कि यह कब ऐसा कर रहा है।" 

अनुदेशनात्मक उद्देश्य अथवा शिक्षण उद्देश्य शिक्षार्थियों के व्यावहारिक परिवर्तन के में प्राप्त होते हैं। वे अपेक्षित अधिगम अथवा शिक्षण के प्रतिफल या शिक्षार्थियों में व्यावहारिक परिवर्तन के साथ संबंधित होते हैं। इन्हें शिक्षण अधिगम उद्देश्य या व्यावहारिक उद्देश्य भी कहा जाता है। अनुदेशनात्मक उद्देश्य ज्ञान, योग्यताओं, दृष्टिकोणों एवं उन कौशलों की तरफ इंगित करते हैं जिनकी प्राप्ति के लिए छात्रों से अपेक्षा की जाती है, अर्थात् शिक्षक छात्रों से यह आशा करता है कि अनुदेशन के फलस्वरूप वे इन्हें प्राप्त करेंगे। ये उद्देश्य स्पष्ट, विशिष्ट, सुनिश्चित सीमित तथा क्रियात्मक होते हैं। ये उद्देश्य कक्षा-कक्ष शिक्षण से संबंधित होते है।

अनुदेशनात्मक उद्देश्य वे बुनियादी उद्देश्य हैं, जिन्हें सीमित समय एवं सीमित साधनों के मध्यम आसानीपूर्वक प्राप्त किया जा सकता है।

अनुदेशनात्मक उद्देश्यों की आवश्यकता 

Need of Instructional Objectives

शिक्षण अथवा अनुदेशन द्वारा छात्रों के व्यक्तित्व का विकास करके उन्हें परिवर्तित किया जाता है, अतः शिक्षण के स्पष्ट उद्देश्य होने चाहिए। स्पष्ट एवं निश्चित उद्देश्य निम्नलिखित क्षेत्रों अपेक्षित परिवर्तन लाने में सहायक सिद्ध होते हैं ー

1. ज्ञान का क्षेत्र

2. प्रयोग का क्षेत्र

3. अभिरूचि का क्षेत्र

4. कौशल का क्षेत्र

5. दृष्टिकोण का क्षेत्र

6. व्यक्तित्व तथा चरित्र का क्षेत्र

7. मूल्यांकन का क्षेत्र

उपर्युक्त सभी क्षेत्र महत्वपूर्ण हैं। अतएव अनुदेशनात्मक उद्देश्य अथवा शिक्षण उद्देश्य इस तरह होने चाहिए जो छात्रों को इन क्षेत्रों के विकास में सहायता प्रदान करें। 

अधिगम उद्देश्यों अथवा सीखने के उद्देश्यों का संबंध विद्यार्थियों के व्यवहार परिवर्तन से होता है। कक्षा-शिक्षण के परिवर्तनों से शिक्षण उद्देश्यों की प्राप्ति की जाती है। यह विशिष्ट, प्रत्यक्ष एवं व्यावहारिक होते हैं। इसलिए एक अध्यापक के लिए इनकी अधिक उपयोगिता होती है। शिक्षण उद्देश्यों का प्रत्यक्ष रूप में संबंध सीखने के उद्देश्य से होता है। 

बी० एस० ब्लूम ने सीखने के उद्देश्यों को तीन पक्षों में विभाजित किया है। सीखने के उद्देश्यों का संबंध विद्यार्थियों के व्यवहार परिवर्तन से होता है। व्यवहार परिवर्तन तीन प्रकार के होते हैं –

(1) ज्ञानात्मक, (2) भावात्मक, (3) क्रियात्मक।

ब्लूम के अनुसार सीखने के उद्देश्य भी तीन प्रकार के होते हैं –

(1) ज्ञानात्मक उद्देश्य

(2) भावात्मक उद्देश्य

(3) क्रियात्मक उद्देश्य 

(1) ज्ञानात्मक उद्देश्य-ज्ञानात्मक उद्देश्यों का संबंध तथ्यों, ज्ञान तथा सूचनाओं की जानकारी से होता है। अधिकतर शैक्षिक क्रियाओं द्वारा इसी उद्देश्य की प्राप्ति की जाती है। 

(2) भावात्मक उद्देश्य-इसका संबंध रुचियों, अभिवृत्तियों एवं मूल्यों के विकास होता है। यह शिक्षा का महत्वपूर्ण उद्देश्य माना जाता है।

(3) क्रियात्मक उद्देश्य-क्रियात्मक उद्देश्यों का संबंध शारीरिक क्रियाओं के प्रशिक्षण तथा कौशल के विकास से होता है। उद्देश्य का संबंध औद्योगिक एवं व्यावसायिक प्रशिक्षण से होता है। 

ब्लूम तथा उनके सहयोगियों ने शिकागो विश्वविद्यालय में इन तीनों पक्षों का वर्गीकरण प्रस्तुत किया है। ज्ञानात्मक पक्ष का ब्लूम ने 1956 में, भावात्मक पक्ष का ब्लूम, करथवाल एवं मसीआ ने 19964 में एवं क्रियात्मक पक्ष का सिम्पसन ने 1909 में वर्गीकरण प्रस्तुत किया है इस रस को सहायता से अध्यापक अपने शिक्षण एवं अधिगम उद्देश्यों  का निरधारण सरलता एवं सुगमता से कर सकता है।