Uses and Limitations of Intelligence Tests

 Uses of Intelligence Tests

The following are the important uses of intelligence test: 

1. Understand the Capability of a Child

Intelligence tests are of valuable aid to the educationist as a means of diagnosis of the capacity or efficiency of pupils. The scores of intelligence test reveal the mental age of a child and indicates the readiness of a child for learning.

2. Homogeneous Grouping

A class consisting of students with widely different abilities, is difficult to handle. Thus homogeneous grouping of pupils can be done on the basis of intelligence test results.

3. Purpose of Admission/Selection to Various Courses

It has been known that success in school is to a great extent, correlated with intelligence. While admitting pupils it is desirable to consider their M.A. rather than C.A. Thus, it is an asset (intelligence test) and help the professionals and students to choose the right institutions and right courses.

4. Identifying Gifted and Backward Children

Intelligence tests help in classifying individuals according to their mental make up. On the basis of results the students can be named as gifted, backward and average, and accordingly educational opportunities can be provided.

5. Educational and Vocational Guidance

The results of intelligence tests help in providing educational, vocational and personal guidance to students by teachers and guidance personnel. It gives clue in guiding the students into those courses where they have some likelihood of being successful and suggesting a few other courses and careers. This test is also used as a screening device for selecting suitable candidates from among a large number of applicants and possibility of entering into an occupation in future.

6. Use in Assessment for Promotion, Reporting to Parents and Degree of Responsibility

The results of intelligence tests along with the achievement tests can be successfully used for promotion of students to the next higher grades and help in promotion of people in next higher post. Similarly intelligence test help the teacher to sent progress report to the parents about the mental ability and the achievement level of the students. Sometimes the teacher assigns responsibility, etc., on students on the basis of intelligence test, which is really a praiseworthy activity.

7. Raising the Quality of Teaching

Intelligence test help the teacher to plan his/her teaching-learning activities according to the needs of the child or what the child can learn and how quickly he/she can learn.

8. Use in Research Work

Intelligence tests are very much needed for research in the field of education. Mental measurement is a very important aspect in any study whether it aims at survey or comparison. Intelligence test help us to know the general level of intelligence of a particular country or race.

Limitations of Intelligence Test

1. Results of intelligence tests should not be considered final because sometimes it may not give accurate results. In such cases interpretation of intelligence of the individual becomes wrong.

2. Intelligence tests are constructed and standardised on a definite population. In such cases accurate results may not be predicted in another population. 

3. Intelligence test becomes unreliable if accurate chronological age is not real.

4. Intelligence tests especially individual tests are too costly and teachers cannot make use of it. 

5. Sometimes intelligence test by itself or in combination with others cannot measure the true psyche potential or mental functioning of an individual or the real cognitive ability of an individual.

6. Sometimes it is quite surprising and rather confusing when a child scores very high on one test and very low on another. This may be quite misleading.

7. The I.Q. scores of the testes are highly influenced by the conditions prevailing at the time the intelligence tests are administered.

8. There is every possibility of language difficulty, poor test questions and vague instructions, etc., in the intelligence test, which may not give accurate ideas of the students.

Verbal and Non-Verbal Intelligence Tests

 Verbal and Non-Verbal Intelligence Tests

The Intelligence tests are classified into two types on the basis of their presentation: verbal intelligence tests and non-verbal intelligence tests.

1. Verbal Intelligence Tests: These are those intelligence tests in which the questions and problems are presented in words or language, and the subjects too have to answer in words or language. They are generally in the form of paper-pencil tests.

The most important characteristic of these tests is that have more validity and reliability. Second, they can be administered individually and collectively both. Third, they can be administered easily. And fourth their scoring is objective.

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2. Non-Verbal Intelligence Tests: These are those intelligence tests in which questions and problems are not presented by the medium of language but are presented by the medium of concrete objects and figures, and the subjects have to answer them with such activities. These tests can also be in the form of pen-pencil tests, or they may be only performance tests, or they can be a mixture of both. In paper-pencil tests, objects or artistic problems are presented in printed form which the examines solve using pencils, and in performance tests, different objects are presented for placing them in order or serial.

The foremost characteristic of these tests is that they are comparatively more valid and reliable. Second, they can be administered on both literate and illiterate persons. Third, they can be administered individually or collectively. Fourth, they can also be used to measure the intelligence of tiny children easily.

Verbal Individual Intelligence Test

1. Name of the test: Stanford-Binet Intelligence Test Series, 1960

2. Adapter of the test: Dr. S.K. Kulshreshtha

3. Quality to be measured: General intelligence (G) 

4. Utility: This test is used for the measurement of intelligence of children from 2 years of age to youths of 18 years.

5. (a) Test Material: Test material can be divided into four groups: 

(i) Test Series: It describes the sub-tests to be administered for different age levels.

(ii) Material Aid: It can be divided into two groups: one, concrete objects and second, pack of cards. Concrete objects are toys of dogs, cat, cup, etc. and wooden cubes which are used for the measurement are of two kinds: small and big. The small pack comprises of 36 figures of different objects (aeroplane, coat, umbrella, etc.) and persons (girls rabbit, etc.). They are used for the measurement of intelligence of children from 2 years to 5 years of age. The big pack of cards comprise 37 cards and some figures given separately. These cards have pictures and linguistic items which are used for the measurement of intelligence of children from 3 years to 18 years of age. The cards include the ones meant for children and adults.

(iii) Record Book: It is used to record responses of the examines.

(iv) Norms: It comprises of norms for examines from 2 years to 18 years. 

5 (b) Number of Items: This test comprises of a total of 124 items which are divided into six groups.

(i) First Group: This group comprises of 12 items for each year for the children from 2 years to 4 years of age group, with a total of 36 items. If a child answers an item correctly, he is given a credit of one month in his mental age (M.A.) and if he answers all items in this group correctly, 36 months are added in his mental age.

(ii) Second Group: This group comprises of 6 items for each year for the age groups from 5 years to 14 years with a total of 60 items. If a child answers one item correctly a credit of two months is given to him in his mental age.

(iii) Third Group: This group has a total of 8 items for adolescents of 15 years of age. If an adolescent answers one item correctly a credit of 2 months is given and added in his mental age.

(iv) Fourth Group: This group comprises of a total of 6 items for the adolescents of 16 years of age. If an adolescent answers one item correctly a credits of 4 months is given and added to his mental age. 

(v) Fifth Group: This group comprises of a total of 6 items for the adolescents of 17 years of age. In it a credit of 5 months is given for answering each item correctly.

(vi) Sixth Group: This group comprises a total of 6 items for the adolescents of 18 years of age. In it a credit of 6 months is given fo answering each item correctly.

6. Administration of Test: Its administration is done as follows: 

(i) At first, the examiner establishes rapport with the examine, talks to him and brings him to a normal state of mind. It is necessary to maintain this rapport from beginning to the end of the test.

(ii) When the examine comes in a normal state of mind, the test is administered according to the directions given in the manual. Two things are especially kept in view: The intelligence test for a common intelligence level child is begun by asking items from the group below his age group so that he is not discouraged. And second, if a child answers an item incorrectly, it is not repeated.

7. Scoring of Test: Credits are awarded to the examine as determined for specific group to find out the mental age. 

(i) Basal Age: The basal age is the age for which the examine is able to answer all questions correctly. 

(ii) Ceiling Age: The age for which an examine is not able to answer even an item is called his ceiling age.

(iii) Mental Age: Basal age + Acquired age = Mental age.

(iv) Intelligence Quotient: It is calculated according to the directions given in the manual.

Non-Verbal or Performance Individual Intelligence Test

1. Name of the Test: Bhatia Battery General Intelligence Test, 1955 

2. Constructor of the Test: Dr. C.M. Bhatia

3. Quality to be measured : General intelligence (G) 

4. Utility : It is used for the measurement of intelligence of small children.

5. Number of Items: This test comprises of five sub-tests:

(i) Koh's Block Design Test: There are 16 coloured wooden cubes in it. The surfaces of these cubes are white, yellow, blue, red, half red-half white, half blue and half yellow respectively. The examine has to make ten designs with the help of these wooden cubes as given on the ten cards. The maximum time limit for making the first five designs is 2 minutes and for second 5 designs is 3 minutes. If an examine makes the first 5 designs in 1 minute, he is awarded 2 marks, and if an examine makes these designs in 2 minutes, he is given 1 mark. Examine who is not able to make the designs within the specified 2 minutes, he is awarded 0 (zero). In the same way 3 marks are awarded for making second five designs within 1 minute, 2 marks for making within 2 minutes, 1 mark for making within 3 minutes and 0 for not being able to make it within this time limit.

(ii) Alexander's Pass Along Test: This test comprises of wooden red and blue rectangular and square cubes. The examine has to make 8 designs with the help of these wooden pieces as given on 8 cards. Each examine is presented in a tray with red pieces lined toward blue line and blue pieces lined toward red line. The examine has to bring the red pieces toward the red line and the blue pieces toward the blue line as given on the card. The condition is that none of the pieces in the tray is lifted, they are dragged in the tray itself and thus the design is prepared The scale to mark the first 4 designs and last 4 designs is similar as given for the first sub-test of 5-5 figures.

(iii) Pattern Drawing Test: This test was constructed by Dr. C.M. Bhatia himself. This test comprises of 8 geometrical patterns. The examine has to draw with the help of pencil the similar patterns by looking at the pattern. The condition is that the examine cannot lift the pencil and no part of the pattern is repeated. Its marking is done as similar to the second sub-test.

(iv) Immediate Memory Test: In this test, some numbers and letters are written on a card. It has two parts:

(a) Direct Order: In it, the numerals and letters have to be repeated in the same order in which they were spoken.

(b) Reverse Order : In it, the spoken numerals and letters have to be repeated in the reverse order. The number of marks awarded are equal to the number of numerals and letters correctly repeated.

(v) Picture Completion Test: In this sub-test, there are 5 wooden patterns which have been divided into the cubes of 2, 4, 6, 8 and 12 respectively. The examine is given these figures and cubes one by one The examine has to join these cubes to make patterns. Time limit for making the first 3 patterns is 2 minutes and 3 minutes for the later 2 patterns. Its marking is also done as similar to the first sub-test. Placing 6 cubes correctly out of 8 cubes in the fourth pattern gives I mark. And in the fifth pattern, placing 9 cubes correctly out a total of 12 begets 2 marks and 6 cubes beget 1 mark. If the examine is able to make the pattern correctly, he is given these marks in addition.

6. Administration of the Test: Administration of this test is done as follows:

(i) At first, the examiner establishes rapport with the examine, be haves with him with affection, sympathy and cooperation and makes him free from all kinds of shies and fears and brings him to a normal state of mind. He maintains this rapport from beginning to the end of the test.

(ii) After having established rapport with the examine, the examine gives directions about the test, and then gives sub-tests to the examine one by one. The examine is given the opportunity to complete the test within specified time limit.

7. Scoring of the Test: Each of the sub-tests is marked accordingly. At last, the marks so obtained are added to obtained total marks. After this, the mental age of the examine is found out from the manual, and his intelligence quotient is calculated.

The Concept of Chronological Age (CA), Mental Age (MA),Basal Age (BA) and Intelligence Quotient (IQ)

 The Concept of CA, MA, BA and IQ

It is a matter of fact that the function of psychological tests is to measure individual differences. But the ideas of intelligence test was first mooted by the French Psychologist, Alfred Binet to measure intelligence and before that attempts were made to measure intelligence through unscientific or crude manner. Now intelligence test is used in a variety of situations and provides a single score such as I.Q. indicating individuals general intellectual level.

Before we make an attempt to assess the intelligence of an individual the following basic concepts must be understood. These are as follows.

(1) Chronological Age:

It refers to the actual age of an individual or his/her date of birth. It is symbolically called as CA.

(2) Mental Age

The concept of Mental age was introduced by Alfred Binet in the year 1908. MA merely indicates the level of development which a child has reached at a given age. It shows the mental level but it does not tell us how bright the child is. It gives us an idea whether the child is advanced or retarded or average when compared to normal children of his/her age.

The concept of MA has made the interpretation of Intelligence easier. If the MA of a child is equal to his chronological age then he is normal. When he is greater than the CA, he is advanced and less than the CA is retarded. It is otherwise called the mental maturity achieved by the child at some particular age or MA is a kind of score which gives an idea of about the intellectual development of the child. Maximum mental age of a person is 19 or 20. The procedure of calculation of mental age is as follows. A child's mental age is calculated by adding the basal age and the credits (in terms of months) obtained by him in subsequent levels.

Suppose a child takes a test of intelligence and there are six sub-tests in the test. Success in passing one sub-test means a credit of 2 months and passes all the six sub-tests means a credit of 12 months. Take for example a five year child and his success and credits earned at various levels are given below.

1. Passed all tasks at 5 years level   -  5 years (Basal age) 

2. Passed 4 out of 6 tasks at 6 years  - 8 months credit level

                                                               (4 x 2)

3. Passed 4 out of 6 tasks at 7 year  -  4 months credit level

                                                              (2 x 2)

4. Failed all tasks at 8 years level    -  0 months credit

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               MA Total: 5yrs 12 months = 6 years

Thus, the child MA would be 6 years though he is chronologically 5 years old. Thus mental age basal age + partial credit or fractional credit for the items up to the terminal age.

3. Basal Age

Basal age is that age of the child where he or she can solve all questions in a given test. It is the basal age which helps in the calculation of mental age. Suppose a child is 5 year age (CA). He solves all questions in a given test meant for a child of 6 and 7 years and solves only one question out of 6 questions in a test of 8 years and unable to solve any of the questions of 9 years. Thus his basal age is 7 years 2 months though his CA is 5 years.

4. The Concept of I.Q.

Intelligence Quotient is the ratio between mental age and chronological age multiplied by 100. Symbolically it is called I.Q. I.Q. is calculated with the formula, i.e., I.Q.= MA/CA x 100. In the year 1916 Stern gave us this concept to CA know the degree of brightness or dullness. It is a method of defining relative intelligence because IQ is independent of the scores which he happens to make at a particular age.

It has been observed by Terman in 1916 revision test that individual mental age increases along with his chronological age up to 16 years. Though the CA goes on increasing yet for the purpose of calculation of IQ, chronological age may be taken as 16 years. Again in the 1937 scale, Terman assumed that for computing IQ, the CA for all adults was taken as 16. Since mental growth continues beyond the age 16, the highest chronological age included in the IQ tables is 18, in the 1960 scales. Accordingly the CA of any adult taking the test is taken as 18 for computing the IQ. Thus Intelligence Quotient in fact a ratio of the physical and the mental age of the child or ratio of mental growth or the rate of mental growth of a child.

Limitations of 1.Q.

1. IQs on one test are not comparable to those obtained on another test. 

2. IQ in case of adults are only hypothetical and are open to doubt. 

3. IQ. tells the rate of maturity but two children having an I.Q. of 120. may not be equally mature. 

4. The difference between an I.Q. of 70 and 80 is not the same as the difference between an I.Q. of 110 and 120.

Comparison Between Classical And Opreant Conditioning

COMPARISON BETWEEN CLASSICAL AND OPERANT CONDITIONING

    Classical Conditioning                                                               Operant Conditioning

                                                                              

1. It was developed by Russian Physiologist               1. It was developed by B.F Skinner.       Ivan P. Pavlov.

2. It is known as Respondent/ Types or signal             2. It is known as Type R/Instrumental  conditioning.                                                                 conditioning.                                     

3. In classical conditioning the CR and UCR              3. In operant conditioning they are       are the same.                                                                different, i.e.. pressing the lever is                                                                                              different from eating food.

4. In classical conditioning reinforcement                   4. In operant conditioning the response is provided by the unconditioned stimulus.                  causes conditioned reinforcement to                                                                                          appear. 

5. In classical conditioning the association                  5. In operant conditioning association between (S-R) is on the basis of law of                       between (S-R) is on the basis of law    contiguity.                                                                     of effect.

6. Reinforcement, i.e., food is presented                      6. Reinforcement is provided after the first to elicit the response here.                                     response is made by the organism. 

7. The essence of learning is stimulus                          7. The essence of learning is response substitution.                                                                   modification.

8. In this type of conditioning beginning is                  8. Here beginning is made with the made with the help of specific stimull that bring                        responses occur naturally.  certain responses.

9. It is stimulus oriented.                                               9. It is response oriented.

10. Classical conditioning is limited to                         10. Operant conditioning is limited to  autonomic response.                                                     skeletal behaviour.              

Maslow's Humanistic Theory

Maslow's Humanistic Theory

A.H. Maslow propounded this theory in the context of personality development. Maslow opposed this opinion of behaviourists and psychoanalysts that human behaviour depends on external and internal stimuli. He minutely studied the process of development of man's personality development and arrived at the conclusion that the internal faculties of man functions as the drive for him. He presented these drives in the form of needs of man. According to Maslow, man arranges material means for the realization of these needs, analyzes favourable and unfavourable object, fact, activity and situation, etc. and applies them all in a systematic manner. Motivation is the most important aspect in this theory, so it is also called motivation theory. Maslow has classified the needs of human beings in a consecutive sequence, which is called ascending hierarchy. It can be displayed in the following form:

1. Physiological Needs: According to Maslow, physiological needs are the basic and most important needs of man. These chiefly include the needs related to food, water, rest and sex. His life depends on the realization of these needs. Generally he is not able to think of meeting the higher needs than these without having met them. These needs are necessary and strong for him. He makes effort for meeting them. These biological needs are so intense for man that he even overlooks social values and norms to meet these needs.

2. Safety Needs: According to Maslow, having met the physiological needs, man proceeds towards meeting safety needs. These needs include physical security, stability, dependency, protection, fear, anxiety, etc. Man thinks about the means to meet them and makes all efforts to get them. Construction of rules and laws, and abidance by them also fall under these needs.

3. Belongingness and Love Needs: The needs of the third level are belongingness and love. Belongingness motivates man to get his respect and honour in the family and society, he makes attempts to become a member of a group and become a good neighbour. Love inspires man to ove others and to get love from others. In case a man does not get belongingness and love from others he becomes maladjusted.

4. Esteem Needs: Having realized the first three types of needs. desire of self-esteem and to get esteem from others works as motive. He identifies his own ability and capability in order to get self-esteem and discovers methods of increasing it, and he develops the spirits of self- confidence, achievement, freedom, etc. in himself. He gets admiration, prestige and esteem from others due to these higher qualities. As a result, he wants to keep himself able and does productive works for the society.

5. Self-Actualization Needs: According to Maslow, the needs of self-actualization are the final motives. A man proceeds towards the realization of this level of needs only when he has attained the needs of first four levels. By self-actualization is meant such a state where an individual is fully aware of all his abilities and inner potentialities and possesses a desire to develop himself accordingly.

Characteristics of Maslow's Theory

(1) According to this theory of Maslow, human needs work as motives for him and he remains active for their realization. 

(2) According to this theory, the needs of man are met in a specified sequence. At first, man meets the needs of the lower level, then he makes effort for the realization of needs of the higher levels. 

(3) According to Maslow, the needs of the first two levels - physiological needs and safety needs are of low level needs and of the latter three levels needs are of higher level needs.

(4) According to this theory, as a man proceeds towards the realization of the needs of higher level, his personality starts to develop and on the realization of the ultimate need of self-actualization, he becomes a person with perfect personality.

(5) The concept of self-actualization assists a man to understand his inner potentialities. Maslow has described some characteristics of a self-actualized person-efficient in perception, accepts others, privacy and detachment, independent, identified with man- kind, democratic in outlook, sense of humour, creative and non- conformist.

Shortcomings of Maslow's Theory

(1) Maslow had taken only 49 subjects for his study and has pro- pounded this theory on the basis of that study. According to psychologists no theory propounded on the basis of such a less number of subjects can be scientific.

(2) The levels of needs as given by Maslow in his model cannot be separated from each other easily. Some needs can be included any two proximal levels, such as dependence with food, love with dependence, it is a difficult task to separate them.

(3) Psychologists are not in agreement with the qualities that Maslow has described about a self-actualized man.

(4) Maslow has said that a person crosses over from one level to another only when he has met the needs of one level. In practice a person takes over to the next level without having achieved the needs of the previous level. 

(5) The result of meeting the need of esteem, is generally compestion which can transform into hatred and enmity later. 

Utility of Maslow's Theory in Education

This theory of Maslow is a humanist theory of personality, it considers man, not as a machine, but as a biological organism. Different aspects of this theory put forth the following implications which can be considered as its utility in the field of education.

(1) The needs of children at different levels are different, teachers should construct the curriculum according to their needs. 

(2) The curriculum of education for any level should be related to the real life of the children of that level.

(3) Before teaching and training the children, they should be motivated for that.

(4) Needs of the children are the strongest motives, so all that which has to be taught to students, should be related to their needs.

(5) The needs of self-esteem and self-actualization should be aroused in students in order to construct their character and make then persons of higher personality.

Skinner Operant or Instrumental Conditioning Theory (S-R Theory with Reinforcement)

Skinner Operant or Instrumental Conditioning Theory (S-R Theory with Reinforcement)

B.F. Skinner's Operant Conditioning or Instrumental Conditioning Theory of Learning proved the importance of reinforcement in learning rather than the connections being formed between stimuli and responses. The theory is called the operant conditioning as it is based on certain operations or actions which a person has to carry out. In classical theory of Pavlov, the dog was harnessed on a table and was passive. The dog performed no operations.

The presence of a stimulus is essential to evoke a response. The subject (e.g., child express fear only when he hears a loud noise and the dog waits for food to arrive salivation) had no control over the happening and is made to behave in response to the stimulus situations. But Skinner revolted against it and argued that in practical situation of our life we cannot wait for things to happen in the environment and it is not always essential that there must be some known stimuli or cause for evoking a response. In operant conditioning the subjects performed acts or 'carried out' operations and were active. A dog, a child or an individual does something, behaves in some manner, which, operates, on the environment which In turn responds to the activity. Based on the findings of his experiments Skinner concluded that "behaviour is shaped and maintained by its consequences. It is operated by the organism and maintained by its results. The occurrence of such behaviour was named operant behaviour and the process of learning that plays a part in learning such behaviour, was named as operant conditioning. More precisely operant conditioning refers to a kind of learning process where a response is made more probable or more frequent by reinforcement. It helps in the learning of operant behaviour, the behaviour that is not necessarily associated with a known stimulus.

The Experiments regarding Operant Conditioning

Skinner conducted a series of experiments with animals. For conducting the experiments with rats, he constructed a sound proof box which was equipped with a bar and a food tray.

He put a hungry rat in the box. It is so arranged that when the rat presses the lever, the feeder mechanism is activated, a light or a special sound is produced and a small pellet of food is released into the tray. All these activities were connected to a recording system. Thus the rat learned the task of pressing the bar more frequently when the food pellet reinforced the behaviour. Here, giving out the correct response is more Important and succeeded in changing the traditional S-R formula to RS formula. He believed that there are responses without known stimuli and these responses are called "emitted" responses. Responses to known stimuli are called elicited responses. He believes response first then stimulus and recognizes two kinds of reinforcers-positive and negative.

Mechanisms of Operant Conditioning

The Important thing in the mechanism of operant conditioning is the emitting of a desired response and its proper management through suitable reinforcement. Here the organism responds in a certain way so as to produce the reinforcing stimulus. The subsequent reinforcement gradually conditions the organism to emit the desired response and thus learn the desired act. The following are some of the mechanisms of operant conditioning:

(a) Shaping: It refers to the judicious use of selective reinforcement to bring certain desirable changes in the behaviour of the organism. Suppose we want to train a child for toilet training. Simply putting the child on the toilet is not successful because as soon as the child is placed on the stool, he/she begins to cry. To shape his/her behaviour, the child is given a chocolate whenever he/she is placed on the toilet. It has been observed that successful elimination follows, Similarly other techniques may also be used. In this way, shaping may be used as a successful technique for training individuals to learn difficult and complex behaviour and also for introducing desirable modification of their behaviour.

(b) Chaining: It is a sort of chain reaction where one object sparks the other object in its proximity and in turn causes sparking in the next object in the chain and so on. When we see someone we know, it is an effective stimulus for starting the chain responses. We greet him and he greets in response. His response to our greeting acts not only as a reward for our greeting but also as a stimulus for generating further response and in this way one generated response gives birth to another -response and so on indicates chaining.

(c) Generalisation: It is a fact that both animals and human beings are capable of generalizing experiences and knowledge acquired in one learning situation to another. Thus due care should be taken by the parents and teachers to reinforce the behaviour of the children only after they demonstrate the ability to generalize correctly.

(d) Discrimination: Ability of discrimination is very important in the behaviour formation. For example, in the Skinner box the animal learns to press the lever when the light is on and not to press it when the light is off. Thus the light becomes a clue or signal for the operant behaviour, I.e., the lever press response. Here the animal develops a discriminative operant which is an operant response extended to one set of circumstances but not to another. Similarly in the learning process the teacher should see that feedback is provided to the children as and when they are able to discriminate the good from bad or to provide proper feedback in correctness of his responses.

(e) Reinforcement: The concept of reinforcement is central in operant conditioning theory and is identical to the presentation of a reward. A reinforcer is the stimulus the presentation of which increases the probability of a response. Skinner used reinforcement as a procedure for controlling behaviour which produces stimulus response connection and recognizes two kinds of reinforcers-positive and negative.

Positive Reinforcement

A positive reinforcer is any stimulus (such as food, money, water, social approval, praise, knowledge of results) the introduction or presentation of which increases the likelihood of a particular behaviour. In the educational context, praise, grades, medals, and other prizes awarded to students are examples of positive reinforcers. 

Negative reinforcement

A negative reinforcer is any stimulus or those unpleasant stimuli the removal or withdrawal (such as loud noise, electric shock, social disapproval, condemnation) of which increases the likelihood of a particular behaviour. In the educational context, a teacher saying to the students that whoever does drill work properly in the class would be exempted from homework act as a negative reinforcer.

The schedules of Reinforcement

The term schedule of reinforcement suggests the particular pattern according to which reinforcers follow responses. 

Some important schedules of reinforcement are the following:

1. Continuous schedule of reinforcement: It is an arrangement of providing reinforcement after every correct response. In the teaching-learning process a student may be rewarded for every correct answer in the form of warm regards or praise or praise or approval indicates continuous schedule of reinforcement.

2. Fixed Interval reinforcement Schedule: In the fixed or periodic interval schedule the reinforcement is presented after a prescribed interval of time, i.e., every 2 minutes or 4 minutes. Here emphasis is not given on correct responses rather it is only at the expiry of the fixed interval reinforcement is given.

3. Fixed ratio reinforcement schedule: In this schedule the reinforcement is given after a fixed number of responses. It means the performance of the learner is important rather than anything else. A learner may be rewarded (receives a chocolate) after he/she answers a fixed number of questions say 2 or 3. Another example of fixed ratio schedule is a rat gets a pellet of food only after pressing the bar say 7 to 8 times.

4. Variable reinforcement schedule: When reinforcement is given at varying intervals of time or after a varying number of responses, is called a variable reinforcement schedule. In this case, reinforcement is intermittent or irregular. Here the learner does not know at which time he/she is going to be rewarded and consequently he/she remains motivated with a hope of reinforcement.

Implications of the Theory of Operant Conditioning

The following implications emerged from the theory of operant conditioning:

(i) The theory provides the basis for programmed Instruction. It is a kind of learning experience in which a programme takes the place of tutor for the students and leads him through a set of specified behaviours.

(ii) The theory has drawn attention to the Inadequacy and unsuitability of reinforcement procedure adopted in our educational system. Thus the element of reinforcement can be strengthened in the teaching- learning process.

(iii) Generally, in our schools, the desirable behaviour of the learners is not immediately reinforced to raise the probability of the recurrence of the same behaviour in future. Thus it suggests delay of reinforcement destroys the effect of reinforcing stimuli, hence, reinforcement should be given at an appropriate time and at each step.

(iv) The principle of operant conditioning can be applied in behaviour modification and ultimately desired behaviour can be strengthened depending upon the manipulation of reward.

(v) Operant conditioning emphasizes the importance of schedules in the process of reinforcement of behaviour.

(vi) Operant conditioning suggested appropriate alternatives to punishment in the form of rewarding appropriate behaviour and ignoring inappropriate behaviour, for its gradual extinction.

(vii) The root of mechanical learning in the form of teaching machines and computer assisted instruction have taken a shape in place of usual classroom instruction due to operant conditioning.

Pavlov's Classical or Respondent Conditioning Theory (S-R Theories without Reinforcement)

 Pavlov's Classical or Respondent Conditioning Theory (S-R Theories without Reinforcement)

The theory of classical conditioning was developed by a Russian physiologist named Ivan P. Pavlov in the year 1904. It is defined as a process in which a neutral stimulus, by pairing with a natural stimulus, acquires all the characteristics of natural stimulus. It is called substitution learning because we substitute a neutral stimulus in place of a natural stimulus. This is also called as respondent conditioning because the subject has noting to do himself and becomes conditioned and does the things. To understand the nature of the process of conditioning, the experiments performed by Pavlov is given below:

Experiment

Pavlov kept a dog hungry for a few days and then placed it in a sound proof room which was fitted with certain mechanically controlled devices. The observer himself remained hidden from the dog but was able to view the experiment by means of a set of mirrors. Arrangement was made to give food to the dog through an automatic mechanism. But everytime before giving food a bell was rung. When the food was given and the bell was rung it was marked that there was a automatic secretion of saliva from the mouth of the dog This activity was repeated several times. After several trials the dog was given no food but the bell was rung. It was found that even the absence of food (the natural stimulus) the ringing of the bell (an artificial stimulus) caused the dog to secrete the saliva (natural response).

The above experiment thus, brings to light four essential elements of the conditioning process, i.e., unconditioned stimulus (US. natural stimulus) is food results in a natural response called the unconditioned response (UR). The conditioned stimulus (CS, artificial stimulus) elicit conditioned response (CR). It is given below.

1. UCS                     -                 UCR

   (Food)                                    (Saliva)

2. CS+ UCS             -                 UCR(Bell+ Food)                             (Saliva)

3. CS                        -                 CR   

 (Bell)                                 (Saliva)

Principles of Conditioning

1. Reinforcement: The salivary response to the bell was strengthened as a r

esult of the food being repeatedly presented just after the bell rang.

2. Extinction: If the bell was rung too many times without the food to reinforce, the response could have disappeared.

3. Generalisation: The dog tended to respond to any sound roughly similar to the ringing of the bell.

4. Discrimination: To teach the dog to distinguish the right sound and other sounds, selective reinforcement was used, that is, the dog was given food only after the sound of the bell, but never any other sound.

Educational Implications

(i) The formation of positive attitudes, fears, love. prejudices or hatred towards an object. phenomenon or event can be developed through conditioning. Thus classical conditioning can be used to develop favourable or unfavourable attitude towards learning. teacher and the school.

(ii) We should associate faults with punishment so that whenever a child feels like committing faults, he/ she anticipates the punishments. Thus rewards and punishments may be given right at the time of the act and not to be delayed.

(iii) Repetition and habit formation is to be strengthed in the process of learning.

(iv) Most of our learning is associated with the process of conditioning from the beginning. Thus the teacher is to develop the good reading habits through conditioning.

(v) The process of conditioning not only helps us in learning what is desirable but also helps in eliminating, avoiding or unlearning of undesirable habits, unhealthy attitudes, phobias through deconditioning.